Read The Lost World of Genesis One Online

Authors: John H. Walton

Tags: #Religion, #Biblical Studies, #Old Testament

The Lost World of Genesis One (5 page)

BOOK: The Lost World of Genesis One
12.77Mb size Format: txt, pdf, ePub
ads

As some of the above examples indicate, however, there are
alternatives. If we are going to understand a creation account from
the ancient world we must understand what they meant by "creation," and to do that we must consider their cosmic ontology instead of supplying our own. It is less important what we might
think about ontology. If we are dealing with an ancient account
we must ask questions about the world of that text: What did it
mean to someone in the ancient world to say that the world existed? What sort of activity brought the world into that state of
existence and meaning? What constituted a creative act?

In this book I propose that people in the ancient world believed that something existed not by virtue of its material properties, but by virtue of its having a function in an ordered system. Here
I do not refer to an ordered system in scientific terms, but an
ordered system in human terms, that is, in relation to society and
culture. In this sort of functional ontology, the sun does not exist
by virtue of its material properties, or even by its function as a
burning ball of gas. Rather it exists by virtue of the role that it
has in its sphere of existence, particularly in the way that it functions for humankind and human society. In theory, this way of
thinking could result in something being included in the "existent" category in a material way, but still considered in the "nonexistent" category in functional terms (see the illustration of the
restaurant mentioned above). In a functional ontology, to bring
something into existence would require giving it a function or a
role in an ordered system, rather than giving it material properties. Consequently, something could be manufactured physically
but still not "exist" if it has not become functional.

Perhaps a modern example can help. If we think of "creating" a
computer, we understand that there are many stages in the process. At the most basic level the casing and the electronics have to be manufactured, the keyboard and other peripherals designed
and so forth. This is the basic production and manufacturing
process-what we might call the material phase of production.
After someone has assembled all those manufactured parts we
might say that the computer exists. But another aspect involves
writing the programs. Even after those programs are written, if
the software has not been installed on the computer, its "existence" is meaningless-it cannot function. So there is a separate
process of installing the software that makes the computer theoretically functional. But what if there is no power source (electric
or battery)? This is another obstacle to the computer's existence.
Adding a power source, we might now claim that its existence is
finally and completely achieved. But what if no one sits at the keyboard or knows how to use or even desires to use it? It remains
nonfunctional, and, for all intents and purposes, as if it did not exist. We can see that different observers might be inclined to attribute "existence" to the computer at different stages in the process.

In a functional ontology, all of the above steps are important in
the definition of existence. Unless people (or gods) are there to
benefit from functions, existence is not achieved. Unless something is integrated into a working, ordered system, it does not
exist. Consequently, the actual creative act is to assign something
its functioning role in the ordered system. That is what brings it
into existence. Of course something must have physical properties
before it can be given its function, but the critical question is,
what stage is defined as "creation"?

In the ancient world they were not ignorant of the senses and
the level at which objects could be perceived by the senses. They
would have no difficulty understanding the physical nature of objects. The question here concerns not what they perceived but
what they gave significance to. When we speak of a computer we
are certainly aware of the tower casing, and it is obvious that someone manufactured that. But that fact does not occupy our
attention, nor do we confuse the manufacturing of the tower casing with the "creation" of the computer. To say this in another
way, our ontology focuses on what we believe to be most significant. In the ancient world, what was most crucial and significant
to their understanding of existence was the way that the parts of
the cosmos functioned, not their material status.

How can we know this? The evidence comes both from the
biblical text and from the literature of the ancient world. The former is more important because, of course, it is possible for the
biblical text to take a different view of ontology than the ancient
world. Propositions 3-11 will be offering the biblical evidence. For
now then, we can set the stage from the ancient Near Eastern
literature. Then we will see in which ways the biblical perspective
corresponds and in which ways it differs.

A number of ancient Near Eastern texts giving information
about creation come from the Sumerians, the Babylonians and the
Egyptians.' Full-fledged creation texts include the following:

Egyptian:

• Memphite Theology (featuring Ptah)

• Papyrus Leiden I 350 (Hermopolis, featuring Amun)

• Pyramid Texts, Coffin Texts and Book of the Dead (especially
from Heliopolis, featuring Atum)

Babylonian:

• Atrahasis

• Enuma Elish

Other sorts of texts that are not in and of themselves creation
texts but contain information about creation include the
following:

Sumerian. Numerous Sumerian texts contain cosmogonic (cos mogony = an account of the origins of the cosmos) or cosmological statements. Myths make statements in passing and rituals at
times contain mythological sections that are cosmogonic. Even
genealogical lists of the gods are thought to give hints to the extent that cosmogony can be inferred from theogony (theogony =
an account of the origins of deity). Narrative texts from Nippur
(an early sacred center in southern Mesopotamia) give the god
Enlil a prominent role, while texts from Eridu (considered by the
Sumerians to be the first city in history) favor the god Enki.
Prominent also are the disputation texts (e.g., Tree and Reed, and
such texts which feature discussions between animals or plants)
which often have cosmogonic introductions. Akkadian cosmological information is also found in incantation texts as well as in
introductions to dedicatory inscriptions.2

Egyptian. The most important allusions are found in the wisdom text titled the Instruction of Merikare and in cosmological
depictions such as that on the centograph of Seti I.

Additional creation material is found in the Hittite Kumarbi
Cycle and perhaps in the Ugaritic Baal Cycle.

What we learn from these can be summarized under several
headings:

• Shape of the cosmos. Old world cosmic geography is based on
what they could observe from their vantage point, just as ours
is based on what we are able to observe given our scientific information (including, e.g., math and physics). If water comes
down, there must be some up there-so they all thought in
terms of cosmic waters in the sky. If it doesn't come down all
the time, something must hold the water back-so it was common to think of something somewhat solid (firmament). If
there is something solid holding back the waters, something
must hold up this firmament-so they thought of mountains or ropes or tent poles. Waters come up from the ground so
there must be waters under the ground, yet something must
hold the ground steady. On and on the logic goes, following
fairly transparent paths. As with any cosmic geography, the
theories about structures are developed to understand the functions and operations as they are experienced and observed.
Creation texts described these structures being put into place
so that the operations would commence or continue.

• Role of deity. In the transition from cosmic geography to the
role of deity, it is important to note that in the Egyptian descriptions of cosmic geography, all of those elements that we
might consider cosmic structures (firmament, sun, moon, air,
earth, etc.) are depicted as gods. This is strong evidence that
the Egyptians were more interested in the functions of these
gods than in the actual material structures. The gods represented authority and jurisdiction. The attributes of the deities
were manifested in the cosmic elements. The cosmos functioned as an extension of the gods, and the gods functioned
within the cosmos. The Mesopotamian texts do not have the
artistic depictions, but they confirm the same interests, as the
gods are seen in close relationship to the elements of the cosmos. It is the divine decree or divine assignment that dictates
the role and function of the various elements.

• Origins of cosmos and deity. With the functions of the cosmos
and the jurisdiction of the deities so closely correlated, it is no
surprise that we find the origins of the gods (theogony) connected to the origins of the cosmic elements (cosmogony). This
coinciding of origins indicates that those origins are functional
in nature.

• Divine conflict. Theomachy is a term that refers to battles among
the gods. Particularly in the Babylonian creation epic, Enuma Elish, creation is accomplished in the aftermath of a battle for
control of the pantheon and the cosmos.

• Features.

Nonfunctional. Nearly all the creation accounts of the ancient
world start their story with no operational system in place.
Egyptian texts talk about a singularity-nothing having yet
been separated out. All is inert and undifferentiated. Similarly, one Sumerian text speaks of a time when there was
darkness, no flow of water, nothing being produced, no rituals performed, and heaven and earth were still joined together.
Even the gods were not yet there.' For an example in Egyptian literature, the god Atum is conceptualized as the primordial monad-the singularity embodying all the potential
of the cosmos, from whom all things were separated and
thereby were created.4

Primeval waters. Creation often begins with that which emerges
from the waters-whether a deity or land (e.g., the Egyptian
Primeval Hillock). These primeval waters are designated the
"nonexistent" in Egyptian texts, a key indicator of their functional ontology. The god Atum is said to have developed "out
of the Flood, out of the Waters, out of darkness, out of lostness." S The Waters is termed the "father of the gods."'

Naming. Names in the ancient world were associated with
identity, role and function. Consequently, naming is a typical
part of the creation narratives. The Egyptian Memphite Theology identifies the Creator as the one who pronounced the
name of everything. Enuma Elish begins with neither the heavens and earth nor the gods having yet been named. In this it is
clear that naming is a significant part of something's existence,
and therefore of its creation.

Separating. This is the most common creative activity in Egyptian texts and is also observable in a number of Mesopotamian
texts. Heavens and earth are most often separated. Even Hittite literature indicates this important step when one myth
talks about cutting heaven and earth apart with a copper cutting tool.? Others include separation of the upper and lower
waters and waters from land.

Creatures. It is interesting that living creatures are almost never
included in the creation accounts. The only exception is in the
Akkadian Disputation of Two Insects, which mentions classification by size and by wild or domesticated nature.

Human beings. Many accounts of creation include human beings. Texts speak of what they are made of (clay, blood of deity,
breath of deity) but not in a chemical sense. These ingredients
communicate instead the important issues of identity and relationship (see further in proposition 6).

Before we leave the ancient Near Eastern texts, a few specific
texts should be noted. The Egyptian Papyrus Insinger is from the
Ptolemaic period (dated to the second or third century B.C., though
the manuscript is from about the first century A.D.). Toward the
end of this piece of wisdom literature, the paragraph designated
the twenty-fourth Instruction contains eighteen lines of what the
creations describe as the hidden work of the god.

BOOK: The Lost World of Genesis One
12.77Mb size Format: txt, pdf, ePub
ads

Other books

Children of Poseidon: Rann by Carr, Annalisa
Butternut Summer by Mary McNear
Miss Merton's Last Hope by Heather Boyd
A Ragged Magic by Lindsey S. Johnson
Esnobs by Julian Fellowes
From the Damage 1 - Opposites Attract by Denton, Jasmine, Genna