21st Century Grammar Handbook (7 page)

As a linking verb, “be” and its forms suggest some sort of general equality or equivalency between the
subject
of a
sentence
and its
complement
rather than some action the subject does to an
object.
“The dog is a puppy” rather than “The dog bites a cat.” The words “a puppy” in this example are a
predicate noun
in the nominative
case.
These grammatical definitions are important only when you are dealing with
pronouns
in the predicates of sentences with linking verbs like “be.” Pronouns change forms from
nominative
to
objective case,
and you should, according to the rules of grammar, follow a linking verb with a nominative: “It is I.” “The group that will do the project is we.” The problem with this rule is that usage has changed so much that strictly correct constructions like “It is I” have come to sound pretentious in many circumstances.

Depending on the audience you are addressing, you need to choose how closely you will follow the rule of putting nominative pronouns after linking verbs. In a college paper, follow the rule strictly. In other communications, you might well follow usage that is less stringent. Better, revise the
sentence to avoid facing the problem and perhaps causing your audience to wonder about what you have said or written: “It is Jane.” “We are the group that will do the project.”

Beat, beat, beaten.
An
irregular verb
in its main,
past tense,
and past
participle
forms.

Beaten.
See
beat.

Became.
See
become.

Because, because of.
As a
subordinating conjunction,
“because” links dependent
clauses
to main or independent clauses and defines the relationship between the clauses as causal. Be sure that clauses you link with “because” actually have a cause-and-effect linkage, and be sure not to start too many
sentences
with “because” (because it gets boring after a while and because the conjunction “because” commands readers or listeners to accept your view of causality, which they may not agree with or may come to resent).

Note that “because of” is usually used to indicate causation in which a clause is seen as the effect: “The day loomed long because of the many tests we had to take.” When the effect is a
noun
directly followed by a
linking verb
like
“be,”
cause-and-effect relationships should be indicated by “due to”: “The long day will be due to many tests to be taken.”

Because of.
See
because.

Become, became, become.
An
irregular verb
in its main,
past tense,
and past
participle
forms. See
linking verbs.

Before.
Preposition
governing the
objective case:
“The teacher stood before us and lectured.”
Adverb
of time: “The guide got there before him.”

Began.
See
begin.

Begin, began, begun.
An
irregular verb
in its main,
past tense,
and past
participle
forms.

Begun.
See
begin.

Behind.
Preposition
governing the
objective case:
“In the photograph the statue stood behind her.”

Below.
Preposition
governing the
objective case:
“The shark prowled below him.”

Beneath.
Preposition
governing the
objective case:
“The earth shook beneath him during the quake.”

Beside, besides.
Although
usage
no longer makes so clear a distinction between “beside” (next to, alongside of) and “besides” (in addition to, moreover),
standard English
prefers that the words not be confused: “I sat beside the door. Two other people besides me sat beside the door.” While “beside” is sometimes acceptable in the sense of “in addition to,” “besides” is a clearly incorrect spelling in the sense of “next to.”

Besides.
See
beside.

Best.
The
superlative
degree of
good
is “best”: “That is the best of the three examples.” “The rose smells best of all the flowers.” Don’t confuse “best” with
“better”—
“best” is used when more than two things are being compared, while “better” compares only two things to each other.

Better.
The comparative degree of
“good”
is “better”: “That is a better example than the other one.” “The rose smells better than the lily does.” When
comparisons
are between an individual and a group of several others seen as a unit or collective, use “better” rather than “best” or “best of”: “The fiddler plays better than all the other musicians.” “The fiddler is better than the rest.” Don’t confuse “better” with
“best.”

Between.
See
among.

Beyond.
Preposition
governing the
objective case:
“The process was beyond him.”

Bit.
See
bite.

Bite, bit, bitten.
An
irregular verb
in its main,
past tense,
and past
participle
forms.

Bitten.
See
bite.

Black English.
African-Americans sometimes speak and write in one or more
dialects
that are lumped together under
the term “black English.” Like any dialect, black English is acceptable only in nonstandard statements. But also like any dialect, black English is not clearly distinct from
standard English,
nor is it always clear under what circumstances dialect or standard English should be used. As with all
grammar
and usage
rules,
apply those of standard English whenever you have any doubt that the standards of dialect might be taken as defective or deficient.

Bland writing.
Although weak or bland writing is not strictly a grammatical or
usage
problem, it does violate one of the key principles of this book: serving the
audience
for your statements with
clarity,
brevity, and
efficiency.
Bland writing is often clear, concise, and economical in its presentation of ideas or information. But it also lulls readers or listeners into inattention, so that they sometimes lose track of what you are trying to convey. Thus clarity can be obscured, brevity can be lost to repetition, and efficiency vanishes.

There are no simple
rules
for avoiding bland writing, and the purpose of this book does not provide for a long exploration of the symptoms, causes, and cures for dull writing. But keep in mind that overuse of
“be”
and other vague
linking verbs,
repetition of the same constructions or patterns of writing, and heavy reliance on either very simple or very complex sentences can produce bland writing. Consult guides for writers,
style
manuals, and similar sources for more help in enlivening your writing; and remember that you have a duty to keep your audience interested as well to meet their need for correct, clear, brief, and effective communication.

Blew.
See
blow.

Block quotations.
In most nonacademic writing
quotations
can be set off simply by enclosing the quoted words in
quotation marks
and proper
punctuation.
However, at times your
audience
will not be easily able to grasp where a long quotation starts or ends, or whether what they are reading is in fact still part of a long quotation that started sometime ago but may or may not have ended.

A simple strategy in writing to ensure that longer passages are clearly marked is to indent them, making a “block quotation.” Such blocks can be introduced by simple phrases like ‘Smith said’ followed by a
comma
or
colon,
some space to set off the block, and then the indented passage. Or some small part of the quotation can appear in unindented text along with transitional words that introduce the block: “The speech was brilliant. ‘Ask not,’ Kennedy said,

Block quotes are not surrounded by quotation marks. If the block includes quotations of words from someone other than the original speaker, those passages are set off by quotes:

If your audience will be interested in the source of your block quotation, the simplest way to present it is in
parentheses
directly after the passage:

There are other more elaborate procedures and rules in various systems for indicating the source of a quotation and showing it in a document. Consult a
style
manual or writing guide recommended by your school, business, or agency if you need to adopt a specific system of citing or presenting sources for block or other quotations.

Block quotation is a form of
emphasis
that can be applied to your own words in a written document. Indented passages stand out even if they are not quotations from others.

Blow, blew, blown.
An
irregular verb
in its main,
past tense,
and past
participle
forms.

Blown.
See
blow.

Bold type.
Darkened, thickened letters in print are called “bold” or “boldface.” Such letters often appear in
titles,
captions, and similar places where
emphasis
is desired to call attention to something. The alphabetical subjects in the entries throughout this book appear in bold type.

Both … and.
The
correlative conjunctions
“both … and” are used to link two equal things or people: “Both Mary and John give excellent speeches.” No
comma
should
stand before “and” in this construction, and the agreeing
verb
should be in the
plural.
See
agreement.

Bracket.
The squarish
punctuation
marks ([…]) used in some circumstances to set off added or supplementary material are called “brackets.” Their main function is to indicate a secondary level of enclosure of
sentence
elements within
parentheses:
“The value of gold ($350 [2,100 francs] on September 4) has a close relationship to inflation.” If it is possible to avoid such complex constructions, which are hard for readers to follow unless they are used to such a
style
(as scientists are), you should do so.

Brackets are also used (usually in more scholarly writing) to insert words into
quotations
that weren’t there in the first place but that the writer thinks are necessary to make the quotation comprehensible to the reader: “Kennedy said, ‘Ask not what your country can do for you but [ask] what you can do for your country.’ ” The purpose of such insertions is usually not to indicate opinions about the matter being quoted but to supply bridge words or other aids to the reader. Avoid using brackets to set off criticisms or other views of quotes. WRONG: “He said, ‘Ask not [well, why shouldn’t we ask?].…’ ” Move such commentary to separate sentences, allowing the source of the ideas you want to annotate the courtesy of having his or her say before your thoughts intrude on the statement.

Break, broke, broken.
An
irregular verb
in its main,
past tense,
and past
participle
forms.

Bring, brought, brought.
An
irregular verb
in its main,
past tense,
and past
participle
forms.

British English.
Standard English
in America differs from correct English in Great Britain (as well as in Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand, and other parts of the world where English is the first, official, or common language). It is usually seen as an error, an affectation, or a substandard performance to apply the standards of one English where another is commonly accepted. But, as with the lines between
dialect
and standard speech, the boundaries between national or regional versions of English are often fuzzy and subject to the constraints of
audience
preferences and the speaker or writer’s skill at playing with conventions and expectations.

In general, the simplest
rule
to follow is: When in doubt, strictly observe the standards of your native language or version of English. Attempts to emulate British or other non-American versions of English can prove embarrassing to you or insulting to your audience. Of course, when you are in another country, you must adopt some of its
usages
and
vocabulary
in order to be understood. Insisting on American standard English when talking to an Australian waiter is just as pointless as trying to sound like a British lord or lady if you aren’t one.

Broke.
See
break.

Broken.
See
break.

Brought.
See
bring.

Build, built, built.
An
irregular verb
in its main,
past tense,
and past
participle
forms.