A History of the World in 6 Glasses (25 page)

1. A Stone-Age Brew

The account of the adoption of cereal grains and the emergence of agriculture in the Near East follows Roaf,
Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East;
Bober,
Art, Culture and Cuisine;
and Diamond,
Guns, Germs and Steel.
The discussion of the probable origins of beer follows Katz and Voigt, "Bread and Beer"; Kavanagh, "Archaeological Parameters for the Beginnings of Beer"; Katz and Maytag, "Brewing an Ancient Beer"; Forbes,
Studies in Ancient Technology;
Hartman and Oppenheim, "On Beer and Brewing Techniques in Ancient Mesopotamia"; Ballinger, "Beer Production in the Ancient Near East"; and Braidwood et al., "Did Man Once Live by Beer Alone?" The social importance of beer, and its possible role in the emergence of complex societies, are discussed in Katz and Voigt, "Bread and Beer"; Sher-ratt, "Alcohol and Its Alternatives"; Schivelbusch,
Tastes of Paradise;
and Joffe, "Alcohol and Social Complexity in Ancient Western Asia."

2. Civilized Beer

The origins of the first cities in Mesopotamia and Egypt are discussed in Trigger,
Understanding Early Civilizations;
Hawkes,
The First Great
Civilizations;
Leick,
Mesopotamia;
and Kramer,
History Begins at Sumer.
The account of the use and significance of beer within Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations follows Darby, Ghalioungui, and Grivetti,
Food: Gift of Osiris;
Heath,
Drinking Occasions;
Michalow-ski, "The Drinking Gods"; Samuel, "Brewing and Baking"; Bober,
Art, Culture and Cuisine;
and Ellison, "Diet in Mesopotamia." The account of the origins of writing follows Schmandt-Besserat,
Before Writing.

3. The Delight of Wine

The rise of wine at the expense of beer is covered by McGovern, Fleming, and Katz, eds.,
The Origins and Ancient History of Wine;
Sherratt, "Alcohol and Its Alternatives"; McGovern,
Ancient Wine;
and Younger,
Gods, Men and Wine.
For Greek attitudes toward wine and drinking practices, including details of the
symposion,
see Murray,
Sympotica;
Dalby,
Siren Feasts;
and Unwin,
Wine and the Vine.
For Greek wine styles, see Younger,
Gods, Men and Wine.

4. The Imperial Vine

For the displacement of Greek wine by Roman wine, see Fleming,
Vinum;
Unwin,
Wine and the Vine;
and Dalby,
Siren Feasts.
Roman attitudes toward wine, and the story of Marcus Antonius, are from Tchernia and Brun,
Le vin romain antique,
and Tchernia,
Le vin de Vltalie romaine.
The account of the hierarchy of Roman wines follows Fleming,
Vinum;
Allen,
A History of Wine;
and Younger,
Gods, Men and Wine.
Galenic medicine and Galen's use of wine are discussed in Porter,
The Greatest Benefit to Mankind,
and Allen,
A History of Wine.
For the rejection of wine by Muslims and its significance to Christians, see Sherratt, "Alcohol and Its Alternatives," and Unwin,
Wine and the Vine.
Alcuin's lament is quoted from Younger,
Gods, Men and Wine.
For the ancient origins of European drinking customs, see Engs, "Do Traditional Western European Practices Have Origins in Antiquity?"

5. High Spirits, High Seas

For the Arab origins of distillation, see al-Hassan and Hill,
Islamic Technology;
Forbes,
A Short History of the Art of Distillation;
Lichine,
New Encyclopedia of Wines and Spirits;
and Kiple and Ornelas, eds.,
The Cambridge World History of Food.
The story of Charles the Bad is taken from Froissart,
Chronicles of England, France, Spain and the Adjoining Countries.
The account of the spread of distilled drinks into western Europe follows Forbes,
A Short History of the Art of Distillation;
Lichine,
New Encyclopedia of Wines and Spirits;
Braudel,
Civilization and Capitalism;
and Roueche, "Alcohol in Human Culture." For the origins of the Atlantic slave trade and its relationship to sugar cultivation, see Mintz,
Sweetness and Lower;
Thomas,
The Slave Trade;
Hobhouse,
Seeds of Change;
and Landes,
The Wealth and Poverty of Nations.
The role of spirits in the slave trade is discussed in Thomas,
The Slave Trade;
Mintz,
Sweetness and Power;
Harms,
The Diligent;
and Smith, "Spirits and Spirituality." The account of the origins of rum follows Ligon,
A True and Exact History of the Island of Barbadoes;
Lichine,
New Encyclopedia of Wines and Spirits;
Mintz,
Sweetness and Power;
and Kiple and Ornelas, eds.,
The Cambridge World History of Food.
The significance of rum's adoption by the Royal Navy is discussed in Pack,
Nelsons Blood,
and Watt, "The Influence of Nutrition upon Achievement in Maritime History."

6. The Drinks That Built America

The mistaken belief that Virginia would have a Mediterranean climate is discussed in James,
The Rise and Fall of the British Empire.
The account of the difficulties faced by American colonists in making beer and wine, and the adoption of rum instead, follows Unwin,
Wine and the Vine;
Baron,
Brewed in America;
and Brown,
Early American Beverages.
The role of molasses and rum in the American Revolution is discussed in Mintz,
Sweetness and Power;
Tannahill,
Food in History;
and Thompson,
Rum Punch and Revolution.
The significance of whiskey in the early United States and the Whiskey Rebellion are covered in Carson,
The Social History of Bourbon,
and Barr,
Drink.
For the use of spirits to subdue indigenous peoples, see Braudel,
Civilization and Capitalism.

7. The Great Soberer

The sobering effect of coffee on European drinkers is discussed by Schivelbusch,
Tastes of Paradise.
For the Arab origins of coffee and coffeehouse culture and the debate over coffee's effects, see Hattox,
Coffee and Coffeehouses;
Schapira, Schapira, and Schapira,
The Book of Coffee and Tea;
and Weinberg and Bealer,
The World of Caffeine.
The account of coffee's spread into Europe and the rise of London's coffeehouses follows Ellis,
The Penny Universities,
and Jacob,
Coffee.
For the cultivation of coffee in European colonies, see Ukers,
All About Coffee,
and Weinberg and Bealer,
The World of Caffeine.

8. The Coffeehouse Internet

For the Internet-like role of coffeehouses, see Sommerville, "Surfing the Coffeehouse," and Darnton, "An Early Information Society." For the use of coffeehouses by scientists and financiers, see Stewart, "Other Centres of Calculation"; Stewart,
The Rise of Public Science;
Ellis,
The Penny Universities;
Inwood,
The Man Who Knew Too Much;
Jacob,
Coffee;
and Waller,
1700.
For coffeehouses in prerevolutionary Paris, see Darnton, "An Early Information Society"; Kors, ed.,
The Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment;
and Weinberg and Bealer,
The World of Caffeine.

9. Empires of Tea

The not-so-ancient adoption of tea in China is discussed in Wilkinson,
Chinese History.
The account of the history of tea in China follows Wilkinson,
Chinese History;
MacFarlane and MacFarlane,
Green Gold;
Lu Yu,
The Classic of Tea;
and Weinberg and Bealer,
The World of Caffeine.
Early European trade with China, and the first imports of tea into Europe, are covered in Landes,
The Wealth and Poverty of Nations;
Hobhouse,
Seeds of Change;
and Moxham,
Tea.
The account of the English embrace of tea follows Hobhouse,
Seeds of Change;
Ukers,
All About Tea;
Weinberg and Bealer,
The World of Caffeine;
Pettigrew,
A Social History of Tea;
and Forrest,
Tea for the British.

10. Tea Power

The Industrial Revolution, and tea's helping hand in it, are discussed in Landes,
The Wealth and Poverty of Nations,
and MacFarlane and MacFarlane,
Green Gold.
For tea's influence on British foreign policy in America and China, see Scott,
The Tea Story;
Forrest,
Tea for the British;
Ukers,
All About Tea;
Bowen, "400 Years of the East India Company"; Ferguson,
Empire;
Hobhouse,
Seeds of Change;
Farring-ton,
Trading Places;
and Wild,
The East India Company.
The account of the introduction of tea into India follows MacFarlane and MacFarlane,
Green Gold,
and Moxham,
Tea.

11. From Soda to Cola

For the origins of soda water, see Riley,
A History of the American Soft Drink Industry;
Gribbin,
Science;
and Hays,
Pop.
The account of the origins and history of Coca-Cola follows Weinberg and Bealer,
The World of Caffeine;
and Pendergrast,
For God, Country and CocaCola,
which is the definitive work on the subject.

12. Globalization in a Bottle

Coca-Cola's march to global dominance during the twentieth century is described in Pendergrast,
For God, Country and Coca-Cola;
Hays,
Pop;
Kahn,
The Big Drink;
Tedlow,
New and Improved;
and news reports from UPI, Reuters, and
The Economist.

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_____.
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_____.
All About Tea.
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