A New History of Life (59 page)

  
8.
   T. S. Tobin et al., “Extinction Patterns, d
¹⁸
O Trends, and Magnetostratigraphy from a Southern High-Latitude Cretaceous-Paleogene Section: Links with Deccan Volcanism,”
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
350–52 (2012): 180–88.

  
1.
   The gold standard for vertebrate paleontology has long been Robert L. Carroll,
Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution
(New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1988). New work on the evolution of what we call the third age of mammals in this book can be found in O. R. P. Bininda-Emonds et al. “The Delayed Rise of Present-Day Mammals,”
Nature
446, no. 7135 (2007): 507–11; Z.-X. Luo et al., “A New Mammaliaform from the Early Jurassic and Evolution of Mammalian Characteristics,”
Science
292, 5521 (2001): 1535–40.

  
2.
   J. R. Wible et al., “Cretaceous Eutherians and Laurasian Origin for Placental Mammals Near the K-T Boundary,”
Nature
447, no. 7147 (2007): 1003–6; M. S. Springer et al., “Placental Mammal Diversification and the Cretaceous–Tertiary Boundary,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
100, no. 3 (2002): 1056–61.

  
3.
   K. Helgen, “The Mammal Family Tree,”
Science
334, no. 6055 (2011): 458–59.

  
4.
   Q. Ji et al., “The Earliest Known Eutherian Mammal,”
Nature
416, no. 6883 (2002): 816–22.

  
5.
   Z.-X. Luo et al., “A Jurassic Eutherian Mammal and Divergence of Marsupials and Placentals,”
Nature
476, no. 7361 (2011): 442–45.

  
6.
   K. Jiang, “Fossil Indicates Hairy, Squirrel-sized Creature Was Not Quite a Mammal,” UChicagoNews, August 7, 2013; C-F. Zhou, “A Jurassic Mammaliaform and the Earliest Mammalian Evolutionary Adaptations,”
Nature
500 (2013): 163–67.

  
7.
   Z.-X. Luo, “Transformation and Diversification in Early Mammal Evolution,”
Nature
450, no. 7172 (2007): 1011–19.

  
8.
   J. P. Kennett and L. D. Stott, “Abrupt Deep-Sea Warming, Palaeoceanographic Changes and Benthic Extinctions at the End of the Paleocene,”
Nature
353 (1991): 225–29.

  
9.
   U. Röhl et al., “New Chronology for the Late Paleocene Thermal Maximum and Its Environmental Implications,”
Geology
28, no. 10 (2000): 927–30; T. Westerhold et al., “New Chronology for the Late Paleocene Thermal Maximum and Its Environmental Implications,”
Palaeogeography, Paleoclimatology, Palaeoecology
257 (2008): 377–74.

10.
   P. L. Koch et al., “Correlation Between Isotope Records in Marine and Continental Carbon Reservoirs Near the Palaeocene-Eocene Boundary,”
Nature
358 (1992): 319–22.

11.
   M. D. Hatch, “C(4) Photosynthesis: Discovery and Resolution,”
Photosynthesis Research
73, nos. 1–3 (2002): 251–56.

12.
   E. J. Edwards and S. A. Smith, “Phylogenetic Analyses Reveal the Shady History of C
₄
Grasses,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
107, nos. 6 (2010): 2532–37; C. P. Osborne and R. P. Freckleton, “Ecological Selection Pressures for C
₄
Photosynthesis in the Grasses,”
Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences
276, no. 1663 (2009): 1753–60.

  
1.
   A personal note to this chapter. One of us (Ward) has had two parrots as “pets,” although it is unclear who was the pet in the relationship between bird and human. What was clear, however, was the level of intelligence. And this is true not just of parrots. Anyone watching crows or other flocking birds can readily see a great and potentially evolving intelligence at work. We dismiss them as “bird brains.” Compare the size of a brain of an African gray parrot to that of our own, and then consider that these birds can speak in complete sentences, do math, are complex in behavior. We all want to hope the chickens we eat every day are stupid. Perhaps not.

  
2.
   K. Padian and L. M. Chiappe, “Bird Origins,” in P. J. Currie and K.Padian, eds.,
Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs
(San Diego: Academic Press, 1997), 41–96; J. Gauthier, “Saurischian Monophyly and the Origin of Birds,” in K. Padian,
Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences
8 (1986): 1–55; L. M. Chiappe, “Downsized Dinosaurs: The Evolutionary Transition to Modern Birds,”
Evolution: Education and Outreach
2, no. 2 (2009): 248–56.

  
3.
   J. H. Ostrom, “The Ancestry of Birds,”
Nature
242, no. 5393 (1973): 136;
J. Gauthier, “Saurischian Monophyly and the Origin of Birds,” in K. Padian,
Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences
8 (1986): 1–55; J. Cracraft, “The Major Clades of Birds,” in M. J. Benton, ed.,
The Phylogeny and Classification of the Tetrapods, Volume I: Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), 339–61.

  
4.
   A. Feduccia, “On Why the Dinosaur Lacked Feathers,” in M. K. Hecht et al., eds.
The Beginnings of Birds: Proceedings of the International
Archaeopteryx
Conference Eichstatt 1984
(Eichstatt: Freunde des Jura-Museums Eichstatt, 1985), 75–79; A. Feduccia et al., “Do Feathered Dinosaurs Exist? Testing the Hypothesis on Neontological and Paleontological Evidence,”
Journal of Morphology
266, no. 2 (2005): 125–66.

  
5.
   J. O’Connor, “A Revised Look at Liaoningornis Longidigitris (Aves).”
Vertebrata PalAsiatica
50 (2012): 25–37.

  
6.
   A. Feduccia, “Explosive Evolution in Tertiary Birds and Mammals,”
Science
267, no. 5198 (1995): 637–38; A. Feduccia, “Big Bang for Tertiary Birds?”
Trends in Ecology and Evolution
18, no. 4 (2003): 172–76.

  
7.
   M. Norell and M. Ellison,
Unearthing the Dragon: The Great Feathered Dinosaur Discovery
(New York: Pi Press, 2005); R. Prum, “Are Current Critiques of the Theropod Origin of Birds Science? Rebuttal to Feduccia 2002,”
Auk
120, no. 2(2003): 550–61; S. Hope, “The Mesozoic Radiation of Neornithes,” in L. M. Chiappe et al.,
Mesozoic Birds: Above the Heads of Dinosaurs
(Oakland: University of California Press, 2002), 339–88; P. Ericson et al., “Diversification of Neoaves: Integration of Molecular Sequence Data and Fossils,”
Biology Letters
2, no. 4 (2006): 543–47; K. Padian, “
The Origin and Evolution of Birds
by Alan Feduccia (Yale University Press, 1996),”
American Scientist
85: 178–81; M. A. Norell et al., “Flight from Reason. Review of:
The Origin and Evolution of Birds
by Alan Feduccia (Yale University Press, 1996),”
Nature
384, no. 6606 (1997): 230; L. M. Witmer, “The Debate on Avian Ancestry: Phylogeny, Function, and Fossils,” in L. M. Chiappe and L. M. Witmer, eds.,
Mesozoic Birds: Above the Heads of Dinosaurs
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 3–30.

  
8.
   C. Pei-ji et al., “An Exceptionally Preserved Theropod Dinosaur from the Yixian Formation of China,”
Nature
391, no. 6663 (1998): 147–52; G. S. Paul,
Dinosaurs of the Air: The Evolution and Loss of Flight in Dinosaurs and Birds
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), 472; X. Xu et al., “An
Archaeopteryx
-like Theropod from China and the Origin of Avialae,”
Nature
475 (2011): 465–70.

  
9.
   D. Hu et al., “A Pre-
Archaeopteryx
Troodontid Theropod from China with Long Feathers on the Metatarsus,”
Nature
461, no. 7264 (2009): 640–43; A. H. Turner et al., “A Basal Dromaeosaurid and Size Evolution Preceding Avian Flight,”
Science
317, no. 5843 (2007): 1378–81; X. Xu et al., “Basal Tyrannosauroids from China and Evidence for Protofeathers in Tyrannosauroids,”
Nature
431, 7009 (2004): 680–84; C. Foth, “On the Identification of Feather Structures in Stem-Line Representatives of Birds: Evidence from Fossils and Actuopalaeontology,”
Paläontologische Zeitschrift
86, no. 1 (2012): 91–102; R. Prum and A. H. Brush, “The Evolutionary Origin and Diversification of Feathers,”
Quarterly Review of Biology
77, no. 3 (2002): 261–95.

10.
   M. H. Schweitzer et al., “Soft-Tissue Vessels and Cellular Preservation in
Tyrannosaurus rex
,”
Science
307, no. 5717 (2005); C. Dal Sasso and M. Signore, “Exceptional Soft-Tissue Preservation in a Theropod Dinosaur from Italy,”
Nature
392, no. 6674 (1998): 383–87; M. H. Schweitzer et al., “Heme Compounds in Dinosaur Trabecular Bone,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
94, no. 12 (1997): 6291–96.

11.
   Dr. Paul Willis, “Dinosaurs and Birds: The Story,” The Slab,
http://www.abc.net.au/science/slab/dinobird/story.htm
.

12.
   J. A. Clarke et al., “Insight into the Evolution of Avian Flight from a New Clade of Early Cretaceous Ornithurines from China and the Morphology of
Yixianornis grabaui
,”
Journal of Anatomy
208 (3 (2006): 287–308.

13.
   N. Brocklehurst et al., “The Completeness of the Fossil Record of Mesozoic Birds: Implications for Early Avian Evolution,”
PLOS One
(2012); J. A. Clarke et al., “Definitive Fossil Evidence for the Extant Avian Radiation in the Cretaceous,”
Nature
433 (2005): 305–8.

14.
   L. Witmer, “The Debate on Avian Ancestry: Phylogeny, Function and Fossils,” in L. Chiappe et al., eds.,
Mesozoic Birds: Above the Heads of Dinosaurs
(Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 2002), 3–30; L. M. Chiappe and G. J. Dyke, “The Mesozoic Radiation of Birds,”
Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
33 (2002): 91–124; J. W. Brown et al., “Strong Mitochondrial DNA Support for a Cretaceous Origin of Modern Avian Lineages,”
BMC Biology
6 (2008): 1–18; J. Cracraft, “Avian Evolution, Gondwana Biogeography and the Cretaceous-Tertiary Mass Extinction Event,”
Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences
268 (2001): 459–69; S. Hope, “The Mesozoic Radiation of Neornithes,” in L. M. Chiappe et al., eds.,
Mesozoic Birds: Above the Heads of Dinosaurs
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 339–88; Z. Zhang et al., “A Primitive Confuciusornithid Bird from China and Its Implications for Early Avian Flight,”
Science in China Series D
51, no. 5 (2008): 625–39.

15.
   N. R. Longrich et al., “Mass Extinction of Birds at the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) Boundary,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
108 (2011): 15253–57; G. Mayr,
Paleogene Fossil Birds
(Berlin: Springer, 2009), 262; J. A. Clarke et al., “Definitive Fossil Evidence for the Extant Avian Radiation in the Cretaceous,”
Nature
433 (2005): 305–8; T. Fountaine, et al., “The Quality of the Fossil Record of Mesozoic Birds,”
Proceedings of the Royal Academy of Sciences B-Biological Science
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16.
   P. Ericson et al. “Diversification of Neoaves: Integration of Molecular Sequence Data and Fossils,”
Biology Letters
2, no.4 (2006): 543–47; but see J. W. Brown et al., “Nuclear DNA Does Not Reconcile ‘Rocks’ and ‘Clocks’ in Neoaves: A Comment on Ericson et al.,”
Biology Letters
3, no. 3 (2007): 257–20; A. Suh et al., “Mesozoic Retroposons Reveal Parrots as the Closest Living Relatives of Passerine Birds,”
Nature Communications
2, no.8 (2011).

17.
   K. J. Mitchell et al., “Ancient DNA Reveals Elephant Birds and Kiwi Are Sister Taxa and Clarifies Ratite Bird Evolution,”
Science
344, no. 6186 (2014): 898–900.

  
1.
   P. Ward,
Rivers in Time
(New York: Columbia University Press, 2000).

  
2.
   R. Leakey and R. Lewin,
The Sixth Extinction
(Norwell, MA: Anchor Press, 1996).

  
3.
   “Lucy’s Legacy: The Hidden Treasures of Ethiopia,” Houston Museum of Natural Science, 2009.

  
4.
   D. Johanson and M. Edey,
Lucy, the Beginnings of Humankind
(Granada: St Albans, 1981); W. L. Jungers, “Lucy’s Length: Stature Reconstruction in
Australopithecus afarensis
(A.L.288-1) with Implications for Other Small-Bodied Hominids,”
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
76, no. 2 (1988): 227–31.

  
5.
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American Journal of Physical Anthropology
149 (2012): 616–2; P. A. Kramer and D. Sylvester, “The Energetic Cost of Walking: A Comparison of Predictive Methods,”
PLoS One
(2011).

  
6.
   D. J. Green and Z. Alemseged, “
Australopithecus afarensis
Scapular Ontogeny, Function, and the Role of Climbing in Human Evolution,”
Science
338, no. 6106 (2012): 514–17.

  
7.
   J. P. Noonan, “Neanderthal Genomics and the Evolution of Modern Humans,”
Genome Res.
20, no. 5 (2010): 547–53.

  
8.
   K. Prufer et al., “The Complete Genome Sequence of a Neanderthal from the Althai Mountains,”
Nature
505, no. 7481 (2014): 43–49.