Collins Cobuild English Grammar (147 page)

I had just finished my meal
when
I heard voices.
He was having his dinner
when
the telephone rang.

If you want to say that one event happened a very short time after another, you use a clause in the past perfect, followed by a time clause in the past simple. After
had
in the first clause, you put
no sooner
or
hardly
.

When you use
no sooner
, the time clause begins with
than
.

I had
no sooner
checked into the hotel
than
he arrived with the appropriate documents.

When you use
hardly
, the time clause begins with
when
or
before
.

He had
hardly
got his eyes open
before
she told him that they were leaving.

No sooner
or, less frequently,
hardly
can be put at the beginning of the first clause, followed by
had
and the subject.

No sooner
had he asked the question
than
the answer came to him.
Hardly
had he settled into his seat
when
Alan came bursting in.
Hardly
had he got on his horse
before
people started firing at him.

8.18
     When something is the case because of a new situation, you can say what is the case and then add a subordinate clause saying what the new situation is. The subordinate clause begins with
now that
. In British English you can leave out
that
.

He could travel much faster
now that
he was alone.
I feel better
now
I’ve talked to you.

saying when a situation began

8.19
     If you want to say that a situation started to exist at a particular time and still exists, you use
since
or
ever since
. In the time clause, you use the
past simple
.

I’ve been in politics
since
I
was
at university.
It’s been making money
ever since
it
opened
.

You also use
since
or
ever since
to say that a situation started to exist at a particular time, and still existed at a later time. In the time clause, you use the
past simple
or the
past perfect
.

He had been tired
ever since
he
started
work.
Janine had been busy
ever since
she
had heard
the news.

If you are mentioning someone’s age at the time when a situation started, you always use the
past simple
.

I was seven years older than Wendy and had known her
since
she
was
twelve.

Since
is also used in
reason clauses
. This is explained in paragraph
8.50
.

saying when a situation ends

8.20
     If you want to say that a situation stopped when something happened, you use
until
or
till
.

I stayed there talking to them
until
I saw Sam Ward leave the building.
We waited
till
they arrived.

You also use
until
or
till
to say that a situation will stop when something happens in the future. In the time clause you use the
present simple
or the
present perfect
.

Stay with me
until
I
go
.
We’ll support them
till
they
find
work.
Tell him I won’t discuss anything
until
I’
ve spoken
to my wife.

8.21
     
By which time
,
at which point
,
after which
,
whereupon
, and
upon which
are also used at the beginning of time clauses.

You use
by which time
to say that something had already happened or will already have happened before the event you have just mentioned.

He was diagnosed in 1999,
by which time
he was already very ill.

You use
at which point
to say that something happened immediately after the event you have just mentioned.

The company closed in the late seventies,
at which point
he retired.

You use
after which
to say that a situation started to exist or will start to exist after the event you have just mentioned.

The items were removed for chemical analysis,
after which
they were never seen again.

You use
whereupon
or
upon which
to say that something happened immediately after the event you have just mentioned and was a result of it. Both of these uses are rather formal.

His department was shut down,
whereupon
he returned to Calcutta.
I told Dr Johnson of this,
upon which
he called for Joseph.

USAGE NOTE

8.22
     You can use a clause beginning with
when
after a question beginning with
why
. For example, you can say
Why should I help her when she never helps me
? However this clause is not a time clause. In your question, you are expressing surprise or disagreement at something that has been said, and the
when
-clause indicates the reason for your surprise or disagreement.

Why should he do me an injury
when
he has already saved my life?
Why worry her
when
it’s all over?

using non-finite clauses

8.23
     Instead of using a finite time clause, you can often use a
non-finite clause
, that is, a clause that contains an
-ing
or
-ed
participle.

For example, you can say
I often read a book when travelling by train
, meaning
I often read a book when I am travelling by train
, and you can say
When finished, the building will be opened by the Prince of Wales
, meaning
When it is finished, the building will be opened by the Prince of Wales
.

Adults sometimes do not realize their own strength
when dealing with children
.
Mark watched us
while pretending not to
.
I deliberately didn’t read the book
before going to see the film
.
After complaining of a headache for a few days
, Gerry agreed to see a doctor.
They had not spoken a word
since leaving the party
.
Michael used to look surprised
when praised
.
Once convinced about an idea
, he pursued it relentlessly.

Note that you can only use a clause like this when it does not need to have a new subject, that is, when it is about the same thing as the main clause.

using prepositional phrases and adjectives

8.24
     For some statements about time, you can use a phrase consisting of
when
,
while
,
once
,
until
, or
till
, followed by a
prepositional phrase
or an
adjective
.

For example, you can say,
When in Paris, you should visit the Louvre
, meaning
When you are in Paris, you should visit the Louvre
.

He had read of her experiences
while at Oxford
.
When under threat
, they can become violent.
Steam or boil them
until just tender
.

You can use a phrase consisting of
when
,
whenever
,
where
, or
wherever
and an adjective such as
necessary
or
possible
.

For example, you can say
You should take exercise whenever possible
, meaning
You should take exercise whenever it is possible
.

She spoke rarely, and then only
when necessary
.
Try to speak the truth
whenever possible
.
Help must be given
where necessary
.
All experts agree that,
wherever possible
, children should learn to read in their own way.

Conditional clauses:
If I had more money
, …

8.25
     When you want to talk about a possible situation and its consequences, you use a
conditional clause
.

Conditional clauses are used:

to talk about a situation that sometimes exists or existed

If they lose weight during an illness
, they soon regain it afterwards.
Government cannot operate effectively
unless it is free to take its own decisions
.
If I saw him in the street
, he’d just say Good morning.

to talk about a situation that you know does not exist