David and Solomon: In Search of the Bible's Sacred Kings and the Roots of the Western Tradition

THE SMALL, REMOTE ELAH VALLEY IN SOUTHERN ISRAEL
is a place of unique biblical inspiration. According to the famous account in 1 Samuel 17, its harsh, treeless landscape of open fields and low hills was the site of a dramatic confrontation that has remained vivid in the consciousness of the western world.

Even today, in the silence of the valley, one can still imagine the epic scene. On one side were the massed Philistine armies, heavily armored, confident, and ready for battle. On the other side was a volunteer force of Israelite peasants hastily mustered from their villages and sheepfolds, determined to defend their land and their faith.

The fearsome Philistine giant Goliath strode forward. Armed with a sword, javelin, and heavy spear and wearing a coat of mail and bronze helmet, he cursed his lightly armed Israelite opponents and challenged them to choose a single warrior to fight him: “If he is able to fight with me and kill me,” Goliath thundered, “then we will be your servants; but if I prevail against him and kill him, then you shall be our servants and serve us.”

For forty days, the Philistine giant emerged from the ranks of his waiting army and shouted out his challenge. The Israelites were “dismayed and greatly afraid” and none dared to take it up. Yet a handsome young shepherd named David, who had been sent to the battlefield by his father to bring provisions to his older brothers, suddenly arose as an unlikely savior. Armed only with a shepherd’s staff and a bag of slingstones, he approached the mighty Goliath. The arrogant Philistine laughed in scorn at his puny opponent, but David held his ground and boldly proclaimed: “You come to me with a sword and with a spear and with a javelin; but I come to you in the name of the Lord of hosts, the God of the armies of Israel, whom you have defied.” David then took a stone from his pouch and slung it. The stone struck the towering giant squarely in the forehead, and Goliath fell to the ground with a thud.

When the Philistines saw that their great champion had been killed by the young shepherd, they fled in panic. David snatched Goliath’s sword and used it to take the giant’s head as a trophy of Israel’s great victory. The men of Israel and Judah “rose with a shout” and pursued the retreating Philistines all the way back to their own territory. The threat to the independence of Israel had been decisively answered, and David’s divinely guided career as defender, leader, and ultimately king of all Israel had begun.

The victory of David over Goliath is one of the most memorable scenes in the Bible, yet it arouses many intriguing questions: Did it really happen? Can we consider it to be a reliable historical account? Was the story written in the time of David or many years later? Is there any way of determining when it was composed? Can we detect hidden layers in the story? Why does the Bible, in an often-overlooked passage, credit
another
hero with the killing of Goliath? Why does the story so strongly resemble Homeric descriptions of mythic duels between Greek and Trojan heroes? Is it just a simple tale or does it conceal the circumstances and motivation for its composition? What is its wider significance for understanding the evolution of Judeo-Christian theology?

This book seeks to answer all these questions, not only for David and Goliath, but for the entire story of David and his son Solomon and their fabled careers. For the biblical tale of David and Solomon has been read for many centuries as a lesson about how courage, faith, and wisdom can redeem a people from oppression and establish their independence and prosperity. These are the twin goals that every people longs for and that every just leader strives to attain. The story of David and Solomon’s establishment of a powerful, prosperous United Monarchy of Israel has provided a model of righteous leadership enshrined in the Judeo-Christian tradition and in every society that has drawn its moral authority from it. The value of examining this biblical saga is thus twofold. It can reveal the stages of the authorship of the Hebrew Bible (and the use of its images in the New Testament) over a span of almost a thousand years. It can also help to explain why the images of David and Solomon have been—and remain—so powerful in the western tradition by uncovering the historical reasons why the story developed as it did.

Our challenge will be to provide a new perspective on the David and Solomon story by presenting the flood of new archaeological information about the rise and development of the ancient society in which the biblical tale was formed. We will attempt to separate history from myth; old memories from later elaboration; facts from royal propaganda to trace the evolution of the David and Solomon narrative from its ancient origins to the final compilation of the biblical accounts. By following this path, our search for David and Solomon will reveal the fascinating tension between historical fact and sanctified tradition; in this case, between the reality of Iron Age Judah and the West’s still-living legend of ancient Israel’s sacred kings.

Ancient Legends, the Bible, and Archaeology

FROM THE SOARING CATHEDRALS AND ELEGANT PALACES
of medieval Europe, to the hushed galleries of world famous art museums, to America’s backwoods pulpits and Hollywood epics, the story of ancient Israel’s sacred kings, David and Solomon, is one of western civilization’s most enduring legacies. The figures of David—shepherd, warrior, and divinely protected king—and of his son Solomon—great builder, wise judge, and serene ruler of a vast empire—have become timeless models of righteous leadership under God’s sanction. They have shaped western images of kingship and served as models of royal piety, messianic expectation, and national destiny.

Thanks to archaeology, we now—for the first time—can dissect the main elements of the biblical story to see when and how each one emerged. The results of our search may be surprising, for the archaeological discoveries of recent decades have clearly shown how far from the glamorous scriptural portraits the actual world of David and Solomon was. Yet the legend was not merely a romantic fiction of imaginary personalities and events. It evolved over centuries from a core of authentic memories into a complex and timeless literary creation. In its unforgettable images and dramatic scenes—the battle against Goliath, the rise of David from outlaw to king, the splendor of Solomon’s court—the legend of David and Solomon expresses a universal message of national independence and transcendent religious values that people all over the world have come to regard as their own. Yet as we will see, its origins are traceable in the archaeology and history of a single small Iron Age kingdom as it grew from a village society into a complex state.

THE BIBLICAL STORY IN BRIEF

The most elaborate version of the David and Solomon story, contained in a narrative that extends from 1 Samuel to 1 Kings, describes how the people of Israel achieved independence and enjoyed a period of unprecedented prosperity. Attacked and oppressed in their highland villages by the brutal Philistine conquerors from the lowlands, the elders of Israel cried out for a leader who could protect them against their enemies. Until then, the Israelites had been governed in their separate tribes by spirit-filled “judges.” At this time of crisis, the venerable prophet Samuel, following God’s instructions despite his own misgivings, anointed Saul, a handsome youth of the tribe of Benjamin, to be the first king over all Israel. Saul was a daring military leader, yet he proved to be unstable, subject to deep bouts of depression, impetuous violence, and repeated violations of religious law. God’s second choice thus secretly fell to David, son of Jesse, a young shepherd from Judah, who had been summoned to soothe Saul’s fits of madness with the music of his lyre.

As the narrative develops, David’s grand destiny unfolds, even as Saul continues to reign. On the field of battle against the massed Philistine armies, David topples the mighty Goliath and earns the acclaim of the nation, enraging King Saul. In a desperate flight into the wilderness to escape from Saul’s murderous jealousy, David further proves his leadership, bravery, and skill. As the chief of a roaming band of mighty men, he settles scores, fends off enemy attacks, exacts God’s vengeance, and distributes captured booty to the oppressed and poor. When Saul dies on the battlefield, David is proclaimed king of Judah and eventually of all Israel as God’s true anointed one, or “messiah.” It is a classic tale of the rise of the young hero, a warrior for the true faith and a man of extraordinary charisma, who assumes the mantle of a failed leader and becomes the embodiment of his people’s hopes and dreams.

David’s subsequent exploits as king of Israel have served as a model for visions of territorial expansion and divine inheritance, over many centuries. In fulfillment of God’s promise that Israel would be a great nation, David conquers Jerusalem and makes it his capital, providing a permanent place of honor there for the Ark of the Covenant, which had accompanied Israel in its long wanderings. David and his armies then sweep all of Israel’s enemies to defeat and destruction, establishing a vast kingdom that stretches from the Euphrates to the very border of Egypt. Upon his death, David is succeeded by Solomon, his son by the beautiful Bathsheba, who rules the kingdom wisely and ushers in an era of peace and prosperity. It is a stirring narrative of power and divine favor enjoyed by a nation whose rulers have been specially selected by God.

Solomon goes on to build a magnificent Temple in Jerusalem and reigns with justice and intelligence, over a vast bureaucracy, a mighty army, and a great people. Through his international connections and skill in trade and diplomacy, Solomon is celebrated throughout the world as the richest and wisest of kings. He marries a pharaoh’s daughter and gains renown as an insightful judge, author of proverbs, and master of knowledge about all the riches of creation—trees, beasts, birds, reptiles, and fish. When the queen of Sheba journeys all the way to Jerusalem from her distant kingdom in Arabia to meet him, “Solomon answered all her questions; there was nothing hidden from the king which he could not explain to her” (1 Kings 10:3). Solomon’s image is the ideal convergence of wisdom, opulence, and power in the person of a king. Indeed, Solomon’s rule in Jerusalem is a moment when the divine promise comes to its most tangible fulfillment; his reign is a golden age of prosperity, knowledge, and power for all the people of Israel. Forever after, Solomon’s rule would be nostalgically recalled as a golden age of spiritual and material fulfillment that might, one day, be experienced again.

Yet in the Bible, both David and Solomon also have great human flaws, as profound as their God-given gifts. During his flight from Saul, David collaborates with the Philistine enemy and undermines Saul’s authority by his own great popularity. Immediately after Saul’s death, David unconvincingly disavows responsibility for the targeted assassination of Saul’s closest supporters and heirs. Later, his marriage to the beautiful Bathsheba comes as the result of an adulterous seduction—and a heartless maneuver to ensure the death of Bathsheba’s husband, Uriah, on the battlefield. As the years pass, David seems powerless to control the violent rivalry of his princely sons Amnon and Absalom. When Absalom attempts to oust David from power, the aging king is vulnerable and uncertain—even crying out, when he receives word of Absalom’s execution, “Would I had died instead of you, O Absalom, my son, my son!” (2 Samuel 18:33). At various stages in his life, David is a ruthless leader, a greedy lover, a vacillating and sorrowful father. In a word, he is profoundly human, trapped between his destiny and his sins.

In the same way, the biblical Solomon also reveals a darker, weaker side. Solomon eventually betrays his reputation as the pious founder of the Temple, succumbing to the lure of foreign women and gods. His vast harem of Moabite, Ammonite, Edomite, Sidonian, and Hittite wives introduces pagan worship into the holy city. God becomes angry. Once-defeated peoples rise up in rebellion. After Solomon’s death, the ten northern tribes of Israel break free and establish a separate kingdom. It is a vivid lesson about how the religious faithlessness of a luxury-loving leader can destroy a golden age.

Yet God had given an eternal, unconditional promise that David’s “throne shall be established for ever” (2 Samuel 7:16) and that the Davidic dynasty would never fade away. Even after Solomon’s moral collapse and the disintegration of his great kingdom, God assures the people of Israel that he would preserve an eternal inheritance for the descendants of David. One day their affliction would come to an end (1 Kings 11:39). What greater assurance could there be for any people that despite their rulers’ human error and weakness, the nation’s well-being remained secure?

The biblical portraits of David and Solomon are oversized and unforgettable, painted in bright colors. They are filled with human and theological contradictions, yet God’s promise of eternal protection to David and to all his descendants offers the hope that someday a new David or Solomon will arise to usher in a new and even more breathtaking golden age.

THE WEST’S ONCE AND FUTURE KINGS

In the eyes of ancient Israel, David and Solomon were local founding fathers; in the eyes of the Judeo-Christian tradition as it evolved and expanded over centuries, David and Solomon came to represent much more. Embedded in the biblical canon and the traditions of Judaism and Christianity, they are revered as the greatest leaders of God’s chosen kingdom of Israel, and as the spiritual forerunners of leaders, princes, and potentates throughout the western world. After the destruction of the Iron Age kingdom of Judah in 586 bce, the legendary fame of David and Solomon was elaborated and uniquely cherished. Abraham, the great patriarch, slept peacefully in his tomb in Hebron. Moses, the great lawgiver, would never return. But David and Solomon had been the recipients of a divine promise that ensured the people’s survival and eventual redemption. The lineage of David, son of Jesse, offered a promise for the future, no matter how grim the present might seem. As expressed in the book of Isaiah:

That hope fueled Jewish expectations for centuries. But not only Jewish: when the Hebrew scriptures were embraced as the Old Testament of Christianity, the biblical prominence of David and Solomon was adopted to serve a new metaphysical scheme. For Christians, the messianic promise David accepted was inherited by Jesus and, through him, by the kings of Christendom. For Muslims, Daoud and Suleiman were afforded a place in Islamic tradition as great kings and wise judges who carried out Allah’s will. Thus, the legend of David and Solomon became a central parable about kingship and divine favor from the deserts of Arabia to the rain-swept coasts of Scandinavia and the British Isles.

Over the centuries, the vivid scenes, symbols, and images of the biblical stories of David and Solomon have been expressed in nearly every artistic medium: the image of the youthful Judahite shepherd with his bag of sling stones, standing over the lifeless body of Goliath; the young man with the lyre who could still evil spirits; the lusty king who stole another man’s wife and brought about the death of her husband; and the wise kingly son and successor who hosted the exotic queen of Sheba with great pomp and who ruled in unimaginable splendor and prosperity. The portraits of David and Solomon’s divine anointment, majesty on the throne, and world-conquering power articulate a universal vision of divine guidance and national destiny.

The biblical images of the David and Solomon story offered essential tools in the crafting of a wide range of later local and universal kingdoms. The Roman emperor Constantine pantomimed the role of a new Solomon as he assumed control of a Christianized Roman Empire. Justinian boasted how he had outdone even Solomon at the dedication of the massive Hagia Sophia church in Constantinople. Clovis, the king of the Franks, donned a more rustic Davidic persona; and Charlemagne, crowned Holy Roman Emperor on Christmas Day 800, styled himself as a new David who would make a united monarchy of Europe not a biblical fable but a medieval reality. He was followed in his devotion to the image of King David by French, German, and English rulers in the following centuries.

By the thirteenth century, the elaborate Trees of Jesse carved on the façades of great European cathedrals reminded all worshipers of the sacred continuity of the Davidic line. Rising from the reclining figure of David’s father, Jesse, the spidery tendrils of these ever-ascending vines of stone, paint, or stained glass extended upward in a great organic chain of divine authority, from David with his lyre, Solomon and his crown, to the later kings of Judah, to Jesus, the saints, and then to the crowned kings of the medieval world. Likewise, the great Ottoman conqueror and lawgiver Suleiman, nicknamed “the Magnificent,” consciously cultivated his public image as a second Solomon, to sanctify the historical and religious authority of his empire. In the Renaissance, the famous sculptural depictions of David by Michelangelo, Donatello, and Verrocchio universalized David’s embodiment of individual action and confident awareness of personal destiny.

Later, in the paintings of Rembrandt in the golden age of Holland, in the poetry of John Dryden in Restoration England, and in the battle songs of the early American colonists, new depictions of David rose to oust mad Sauls and defeat boastful Goliaths. New Absaloms were condemned and mourned for treacherous acts of rebellion. New Solomons watched over grand empires. The stories of ancient Israel’s kings David and Solomon were no longer solely biblical heroes or mystical precursors of Christ’s incarnation; they were now also the role models destined to be followed by the earthly rulers of new peoples of the Book.

Even today, an age when western monarchy has passed away in all but its ceremonial trappings, the power of David and Solomon endures. Whether believed literally as history or appreciated for its mythic power, the biblical narrative of the founding kings of a united Israel has remained an important part of western culture. However little most people may know the contents of the Bible, few need to ask what a “David and Goliath” battle is about or what “the judgment of Solomon” means. Put simply, without David and Solomon our world would be different. The biblical stories of David and Solomon offer a template for western leadership and an archetype of kingly power that influences each of us, consciously or not.