Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492-1830 (105 page)

45. Lynch, Bourbon Spain, pp. 99-100; Stein and Stein, Silver, Trade and War, p. 160.

46. Cespedes del Castillo, America hispknica, p. 279.

47. Burkholder and Chandler, From Impotence to Authority, p. 17.

48. See Geoffrey J. Walker, Spanish Politics and Imperial Trade, 1700-1789 (London, 1979), ch. 4, and pp. 111-13.

49. Patricia R. Wickman, `The Spanish Colonial Floridas', in Robert H. Jackson (ed.), New Views of Borderland History (Albuquerque, NM, 1998), ch. 7, p. 211.

50. Stein and Stein, Silver, Trade and War, p. 148.

51. Geronimo de Uztariz, Theorica y practica de comercio y de marina (Madrid, 1724). The book was translated into English in 1751 under the title of The Theory and Practice of Maritime Affairs. For Uztariz and his ideas, see Stein and Stein, Silver, Trade and War, pp. 164-79, and Reyes Fernandez Duran, Geronimo de Uztariz (1670-1732). Una politica economica Para Felipe V (Madrid, 1999).

52. Stein and Stein, Silver, Trade and War, p. 202; Cespedes del Castillo, America hispanica, p. 162.

53. Although the authorship of the Nuevo sistema de gobierno economico de America is generally attributed to Jose del Campillo y Cosio, who died in 1743, the attribution remains a subject of debate. The book was not published until 1789, but manuscript copies circulated widely in governmental circles. Citations are taken from the edition published in Merida, Venezuela, in 1971.

54. Campillo, Nuevo sistema, pp. 67 and 76-7.

55. Kathleen Wilson, The Sense of the People. Politics, Culture and Imperialism in England, 1715-1785 (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 140-65.

56. Armitage, Ideological Origins of Empire, pp. 182-8.

57. Fisher, Economic Aspects of Spanish Imperialism, pp. 128-30.

58. See James Henretta, `Salutary Neglect'. Colonial Administration Under the Duke of Newcastle (Princeton, 1972).

59. Cited by Lavalle, Promesas ambiguas, p. 17.

60. Ibid., p. 19.

61. Strachey, Historie of Travell into Virginia Britania, p. 12.

62. Above, p. 201.

63. Carole Shammas, `English-Born and Creole Elites in Turn-of-the-Century Virginia', in Tate and Ammerman (eds), The Chesapeake in the Seventeenth Century, pp. 284-5.

64. James Otis, `The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved', in Bernard Bailyn (ed.), Pamphlets of the American Revolution, 1750-1776, vol. 1, 1750-1765 (Cambridge, Mass., 1965), pamphlet 7, p. 440.

65. Solorzano y Pereyra, Politica inthan a, 1, p. 442 (lib. II, cap. 30).

66. A. W. Plumstead (ed.), The Wall and the Garden. Selected Massachusetts Election Sermons, 1670-1775 (Minneapolis, 1968), p. 137.

67. See Kupperman, `The Puzzle of the American Climate'.

68. Letter of 23 July 1630 in Emerson (ed.), Letters from New England, p. 51.

69. For discussions of this question, see in particular John Canup, `Cotton Mather and "Criolian Degeneracy"', Early American Literature, 24 (1989), pp. 20-34, and Canizares- Esguerra, `New World, New Stars', to both of which I am indebted for the discussion that follows. Also John H. Elliott, `Mundos parecidos, mundos distintos', Melanges de la Casa de Velazquez, 34 (2004), pp. 293-311.

70. Above, p. 80.

71. Reginaldo de Lizarraga, cited by Lavalle, Promesas ambiguas, p. 48.

72. Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, Historia general de las cosas de Nueva Espana, ed. Angel Maria Garibay K. (2nd edn, 4 vols, Mexico City, 1969), 3, p. 160.

73. Marian J. Tooley, 'Bodin and the Medieval Theory of Climate', Speculum, 28 (1983), pp. 64-83.

74. Cited by Pilar Ponce Leiva, Certezas ante la incertidumbre. Elite y cabildo de Quito en el siglo XVII (Quito, 1998), p. 201. A brief account of Villarroel's life, and a selection from his published writings, some of them difficult to locate, may be found in Gonzalo Zaldumbide, Fray Gaspar de Villarroel. Siglo XVII (Puebla, 1960). The family history of Fray Gaspar, born in Quito, perhaps in 1592, of a father who was a licenciado from Guatemala and a mother from Venezuela, and then taken as a child by his parents to live in Lima, offers a vivid example of personal and family mobility across the vast distances of Spanish America.

75. Gregoria Garcia, Origen de los indios del nuevo mundo, e Yndias Occidentales (Valencia, 1607), lib. II, cap. v, pp. 149-54.

76. See Canizares-Esguerra, `New World, New Stars'.

77. Chaplin, Subject Matter, p. 174-7. For the general question of identity in British America, see especially Jack P. Greene, `Search for Identity: an Intepretation of Selected Patterns of Social Response in Eighteenth-Century America', in his Imperatives, Behaviors and Identities, ch. 6.

78. The lexical history of American in both English and Spanish deserves more systematic study. For New England, see Canup, `Cotton Mather and "Criolian Degeneracy"', pp. 25-6. The Virginian author of a tract composed in 1699 identifies himself as 'An American' (Shammas, `English-Born and Creole Elites', p. 290). In 1725, the Mexicanborn lawyer, Juan Antonio de Ahumada, wrote that `the Indies were conquered, settled and established as provinces with the sweat and toil of the ancestors of the Americans' (Brading, The First America, p. 380), but Villarroel's reference to an americano suggests that other instances of its use in Spanish America may be found, both before 1661, and between the time of Villarroel and that of Ahumada.

79. Horn, Adapting to a New World, pp. 436-7.

80. Ponce Leiva, Certezas, p. 207.

81. Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri, Viaje a la Nueva Espana, ed. Francisca Perujo (Mexico City, 1976), p. 22.

82. Child, A New Discourse, pp. 170-1.

83. Cited by Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p. 340.

84. Ned Ward, A Trip to New England (1699), in Jehlen and Warner (eds), The English Literatures of America, p. 401. For further examples of negative stereotypes, see Michael Zuckerman, `Identity in British America: Unease in Eden', in Canny and Pagden (eds), Colonial Identity in the Atlantic World, pp. 120-1.

85. Beverley, History of Virginia, p. 9.

86. Cited by Jack P. Greene, `Changing Identity in the British Caribbean: Barbados as a Case Study', in Canny and Pagden (eds), Colonial Identity in the Atlantic World, pp. 120-1.

87. Dorantes de Carranza, Sumaria relation, p. 203.

88. Craton, `The Planters' World', in Bailyn and Morgan (eds), Strangers Within the Realm, p. 325.

89. Wright, The First Gentlemen of Virginia, ch. 3.

90. For comparative figures of West Indians and North Americans receiving at least part of their education in Britain, see Andrew J. O'Shaughnessy, An Empire Divided. The American Revolution and the British Caribbean (Philadelphia, 2000), pp. 19-27.

91. Kenneth A. Lockridge, The Diary and Life of William Byrd II of Virginia, 1674-1744 (Chapel Hill, NC and London, 1987), pp. 12-31.

92. Cited by Wright, The First Gentlemen of Virginia, p. 294.

93. Otte, Cartas, letter 571 (Juan de Esquivel to Cristobal de Aldana, 20 January 1584).

94. Fray Bonaventura de Salinas y Cordova, Memoria de las historias del nuevo mundo Piru (1630; ed. Luis E. Valcarcel, Lima, 1957), pp. 99 and 246.

95. For the development of `creole patriotism', see especially Brading, The First America, ch. 14.

96. See Serge Gruzinski, Les Quatre Parties du monde. Histoire d'une mondialisation (Paris, 2004), ch. 5.

97. For the Saint Thomas legend, see Lafaye, Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe, ch. 10.

98. Above, p. 196, and see Brading, The First America, pp. 343-8.

99. Anthony Pagden, `Identity Formation in Spanish America', in Canny and Pagden (eds), Colonial Identity in the Atlantic World, p. 66.

100. Above, pp. 146-7.

101. Carlos de Siguenza y Gongora, Theatro de virtudes politicas (1680; repr. in his Obras historicas, ed. Jose Rojas Garciduenas, Mexico City, 1983).

102. Garcilaso de la Vega, Comentarios reales de los Incas, ed. Angel Rosenblat (2 vols, Buenos Aires, 1943; English trans. by H. V. Livermore, 2 vols, Austin, TX, 1966); Carlos Daniel Valcarcel, `Concepto de la historia en los "Comentarios realer" y en la "Historia general del Peru"', in Nuevos estudios sobre el Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (Lima, 1955), pp. 123-36; Brading, The First America, ch. 12.

103. Karine Perissat, `Los incas representados (Lima - siglo XVIII): ~supervivencia o renacimiento?', Revista de Indias, 60 (2000), pp. 623-49; Peter T. Bradley and David Cahill, Habsburg Peru. Images, Imagination and Memory (Liverpool, 2000), Part II.

104. Beverley, History of Virginia, p. 232.

105. Richard Slotkin, Regeneration Through Violence. The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600-1860 (Middletown, CT, 1973), pp. 56 and 116.

106. Mary Rowlandson, The Sovereignty and Goodness of God (1682), in Jehlen and Warner (eds), The English Literatures of America, p. 359.

107. See Slotkin, Regeneration Through Violence, ch. 7.

108. Beverley History of Virginia, pp. 118-19.

109. Richard Ligon, A True and Exact History of the Island of Barbadoes (2nd edn, London, 1673), p. 108.

110. Jack P. Greene in Canny and Pagden (eds), Colonial Identity, pp. 228-9, and Imperatives, Behaviors, pp. 190-3; Hancock, Citizens of the World, ch. 9, and especially pp. 282-3. For the ideology of agrarian improvement in the Anglo-American world, see Richard Drayton, Nature's Government. Science, Imperial Britain, and the 'Improvement' of the World (New Haven and London, 2000), ch. 3.

111. Sir Dalby Thomas, An Historical Account of the Rise and Growth of the West-India Collonies (London, 1690), p. 53.

112. For the consumer movement and aspirations to gentility in eighteenth-century Britain, see Neil McKendrick, John Brewer and J. H. Plumb, The Birth of a Consumer Society: the Commercialization of Eighteenth-Century England (Bloomington, IN, 1982); John Brewer and Roy Porter (eds), Consumption and the World of Goods (London, 1993); and Paul Langford, A Polite and Commercial People. England, 1727-1783 (Oxford, 1989). For British America, Richard L. Bushman, The Refinement of America. Persons, Houses, Cities (New York, 1992); T. H. Breen, "`Baubles of Britain": The American and Consumer Revolutions of the Eighteenth Century', Past and Present, 119 (1988), pp. 73-104, and The Marketplace of Revolution. How Consumer Politics Shaped American Independence (Oxford and New York, 2004); Cary Carson, Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert (eds), Of Consuming Interests. The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century (Charlottesville, VA, 1994); Maxine Berg, Luxury and Pleasure in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Oxford, 2005), ch. 8.

113. Bushman, Refinement, ch. 4.

114. Cited by Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, p. 291.

115. Main, Tobacco Colony, ch. 4.

116. Bushman, Refinement, pp. 74-8.

117. Cited by Main, Tobacco Colony, p. 239; and, for ambivalence over luxuries, see Bushman, Refinement, ch. 6, and Greene, Imperatives, Behaviors, pp. 150-9.

118. Gage, Travels, p. 68. For conspicuous consumption in Spanish America see Bauer, Goods, Power, History, pp. 110-13; and see also Bauer, `Iglesia, economia', in Iglesia, estado, ed. Martinez Lopez-Cano, pp. 30-1.

119. For both the supply and the demand, with the take-off occurring in the 1740s, see Breen's impressively documented Marketplace of Revolution.

120. Francisco Cervantes de Salazar, Mexico en 1554 y el tumulo imperial, ed. Edmundo O'Gorman (Mexico City, 1963), Dialogo 2, p. 63.

121. For a list of universities in Spanish America, with dates of foundation, see Rodriguez Cruz, La universidad, appendix I.

122. See, for example, Salinas y Cordova, Memorial, Discurso II cap. 4, on Lima's University of San Marcos.

123. Villarroel, cited in Ponce Leiva, Certezas ante la incertidumbre, p. 237.

124. For this argument in relation to Spanish American cultural production, see, for example, the exhibition catalogue, Donna Pierce (ed.), Painting a New World. Mexican Art and Life, 1521-1821 (Denver Art Museum, 2004), and in particular the Introduction by Jonathan Brown, to whom I am grateful for advice on this section. For British America, Richard L. Bushman, 'American High Style and Vernacular Cultures', in Greene and Pole (eds), Colonial British America, ch. 12, and Bernard Bailyn, To Begin the World Anew. The Genius and Ambiguities of the American Founders (New York, 2003), ch. 1, which takes as its starting-point Kenneth Clark's essay on `Provincialism', reprinted in his Moments of Vision (London, 1981). A general survey of Iberian American colonial art and architecture is provided by Gauvin Alexander Bailey, Art of Colonial Latin America (London, 2005).

125. For Flemish and Castilian artists in New Spain, see Gruzinski, Les Quatre Parties du monde, ch. 13. For Ferrer, Montserrat Gali Boadella, Pedro Garcia Ferrer, un artista aragones del siglo XVII en la Nueva Espana (Teruel, 1996); and above, p. 202.

126. For recent work on the transmission and diffusion of European influences in Spanish America, see, in addition to Pierce (ed.), Painting a New World, the catalogue of the important exhibition held in 1999-2000 in the Museo de America in Madrid, Los siglos de oro en los virreinatos de America, 1550-1700 (Sociedad Estatal, Madrid, 1999).

127. Ramon Maria Serrera, `Las Indias Espanolas entre 1550 y 1700', in Los siglos de oro en los virreinatos, p. 55.

128. See Serge Gruzinski, La Pensee metisse (Paris, 1999), for the development of hybrid cultural forms in sixteenth-century New Spain.

129. Albert o, Les espagnols dans le Mexique colonial, p. 119.

130. For Villalpando, see especially Pierce, Painting a New World. For the arquebusier angels, above, p. 195.

131. See Cristina Esteras Martin, 'Acculturation and Innovation in Peruvian Viceregal Silverwork', in Elena Phipps, Johanna Hecht and Cristina Esteras Martin (eds), The Colonial Andes. Tapestries and Silverwork, 1530-1830 (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 2004), pp. 59-71.

132. Paz, Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz, p. 364. Paz points out that the poems of Anne Bradstreet were similarly published as being by `The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America ..