Great Escapes (2 page)

At the beginning of 1934, Hitler encouraged Alfred Frauenfeld, the self-exiled Austrian Nazi party leader, to broadcast anti-
Dollfuss
propaganda against the Austrian Chancellor. During this period Austrian Nazis carried out terrorist raids on essential facilities, with weapons and explosives supplied by Germany. There was also an Austrian Legion, consisting of several thousand men, camped along the border ready to move at a moment’s notice.

Then on 25 July 1934, seven Austrian members of the Nazi Party, dressed as Austrian army soldiers, burst into the Austrian Federal Chancellery and murdered the Austrian Chancellor Englebert Dollfuss. The attempt to seize the Chancellery failed, and Dr Kurt von Schuschnigg, with the backing of the government, regained control. Efforts were made by the Nazis to give the assassins safe conduct to Germany, but they were arrested and hanged.

Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was forbidden to have a union with Austria, even though the majority of the people there spoke German as their native language. When Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany he had written in his book,
Mein Kampf,
the ‘reunion of Germany and Austria was a task to be furthered with every means’. In short it meant that the expansion of Germany would include Austria.

All the time Hitler was building his armed forces and by the end of 1934 had increased the military personnel from 100,000 to 300,000. He also declared that he would repudiate the Treaty of Versailles and introduce conscription in Germany. The shipbuilding programme was increased, including the development of the U-boat and the building of two battle cruisers, later to be known as the
Scharnhorst
and the
Gneisenau.

All this of course was in direct contravention of the treaty, but such was the apathy of surrounding countries to get involved that only mutterings within the diplomatic corps were heard. It soon became obvious that the Treaty of Versailles was now meaningless and toothless, as Germany began to openly rearm. It was only then that Britain and France made strong representations to the German government. Germany then stated that it would show ‘unconditional respect’ to the non-military clauses in the Versailles treaty, which included the territorial provisions. As for disarmament, Hitler stated that he would agree to limitations on both weapons and ships, but for Germany this would be final and abiding.

In 1936 Austria and Germany signed the Austro-German agreement in which Germany agreed to respect Austria’s independence and not interfere in the political affairs of the country. Two years later Hitler was to renege on this agreement when, after rigged elections, a union
(Anschluss)
between the two countries was announced, with an Austrian Nazi as Chancellor.

Mussolini, on seeing Hitler flex his muscles and the rest of Europe back down, decided that the time was right for him to take over Abyssinia. On 3 October 1935, Italy invaded Abyssinia and on 2 May 1936 entered the capital Addis Ababa taking complete control of the country. The League of Nations, who had voted for sanctions against Italy, which had only been partially implemented, capitulated. Encouraged by this, Mussolini then invaded Ethiopia and took control of this country.

Two weeks later Hitler, who was at the Wagner festival in Bayreuth, was given an urgent letter from General Franco, who had staged a coup in Spain, requesting aircraft and weapons. Hitler immediately dispatched an air force unit that was to become known as the Condor Legion, together with tanks and other weapons. Italy also sent some 60,000 troops as well as weapons to help Franco in the Spanish Civil War, which raged from 1936–9. The success of the war and the alliance with Spain gave Hitler another border to France and another country that owed its allegiance to Germany.

It was while this was going on that Hitler took the military gamble that was to be the catalyst that would plunge Europe, and ultimately the rest of the world, into war – the reoccupation of the Rhineland. After the First World War the Rhineland had been classified as a demilitarised area and the Treaty of Locarno guaranteed this. Two of the signatories to the treaty – Britain and France – were becoming increasingly concerned with the situation in Abyssinia. Taking advantage of this, Hitler moved his troops in to the Rhineland and occupied the area, and had Britain and France retaliated there is no doubt that the Germans would have had to withdraw. As it happened no retaliation occurred, and Hitler’s confidence in his ability to do whatever he felt like doing, received a massive boost.

This was further endorsed when an Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan was signed. This pact was specifically directed against Russia, and both countries agreed to have no political dealings with the Communists. In the event of one of them being attacked by Russia, both countries would take measures to protect the agreement.

On 12 February 1938, Hitler summoned the Austrian Chancellor, Kurt von Schuschnigg, to Berchtesgaden, and asked him to appoint Austrian Nazis to his government. Realising that there was an underlying threat to take over his country if he acceded to the request, Kurt von Schuschnigg returned to Austria and ordered a vote to see if the people wanted a union with Germany.

Hitler then issued an ultimatum, either he agree to the ‘request’, or the soldiers massing on the German–Austrian border would be unleashed. The reason for this ultimatum was that Hitler feared a vote would go against the Nazis, and so decided to use the threat of violence to ‘persuade’ the electorate that his was the best option. In the early hours of 11 March, Schuschnigg was awakened by a telephone call from the Austrian Chief of Police, saying that rail traffic between Austria and Germany had been stopped, the border at Salzburg had been closed and German soldiers were massed along the border. Kurt von Schuschnigg had no choice but to resign and hand over the Chancellor’s position to the Austrian Nazi Dr Seyss-Inquart.

The writing was on the wall as far as the British military were concerned, but still the politicians held out hope for a peaceful solution to the evergrowing problem.

It soon became obvious that Hitler was now switching his sights to Czechoslovakia, and British Prime Minister Chamberlain sent Lord Runciman to Czechoslovakia in an effort to persuade the government there to form some sort of agreement with Hitler. This was a pointless exercise because Hitler was determined to destroy Czechoslovakia. The country was made up of several provinces: Slovak and Czech together with Bohemia, Moravia, Hungary, Ruthenia and Sudetenland, all of whom wanted a measure of autonomy. The Republic had been formed in 1918 just after Germany had been defeated but since its formation it had been subject to domestic problems concerning the minority nationalities within the country. The sudden rise to power of Hitler and the expansion of Germany gave the Sudeten Germans in Czechoslovakia the encouragement they needed to push for autonomy.

In Britain, Prime Minister Chamberlain became increasingly concerned that Hitler’s continuing demands on the countries bordering Germany would bring about a war in Europe. He flew to Germany for talks with Hitler who demanded that the Sudetenland province of Czechoslovakia be returned to Germany. If this were to be granted he would make no more territorial demands. Chamberlain managed to persuade the French that this was the best way to prevent a confrontation. They in turn told the Czechoslovakian government that unless they agreed to surrender the Sudetenland, they would withdraw their support. Reluctantly the Czech government agreed and all parties signed an agreement to that effect. Chamberlain returned to England, confident that he had averted a war, waving the famous piece of white paper and declaring ‘peace in our time’.

President Hacha of Czechoslovakia was invited to Berlin for talks with Hitler. Under extreme pressure, both political and military, from the Germans, he agreed to place his country under the protection of Germany. Immediately the Germans annexed Bohemia, Sudetenland and Moravia, whilst Ruthenia was placed under the protection of Hungary and Slovakia was made a protectorate.

Whilst Germany was in the process of fragmenting Czechoslovakia, it cast its eye over the slice of the territory that bordered East Prussia, and which Poland had acquired during the Treaty of Versailles. In the centre was the city of Danzig that Germany insisted should revert back to them. If Poland agreed to this, they would be invited to join the Anti-Comintern Pact, Germany would guarantee Poland’s frontiers and would extend the existing Polish–German treaty from ten to twenty years. Poland refused and warned Germany about trying to take Danzig by force.

Germany wanted to build a highway and a double-track railway between Czechoslovakia and East Prussia. This meant going through the strip of land now held by Poland, with Danzig at the centre. On 19 November 1938, the Polish Foreign Minister, Colonel Józef Beck, told his German counterpart Ribbentrop that his country gave an emphatic refusal to this proposal. Hitler’s response was to order the mobilisation of his military.

On 5 January 1939, Hitler invited the Polish Foreign Minister to Berchtesgaden for talks, in which he informed Beck that Danzig was German, always had been and always would be. He was also sure that the two countries could reach an agreement over this ‘little’ problem. The city was under the control of local Nazis and, in the event of an attempted takeover, it would be simple for them to create a quasi-revolutionary situation there.

Within days the situation regarding Poland deteriorated and in Britain, Prime Minister Chamberlain now announced his country’s support of Poland. This created a new dilemma for Hitler, as up to now his occupation of surrounding countries had gone unopposed. In a top-secret directive codenamed ‘Case White’, Hitler spelt out his plans to his armed forces. These plans were for the invasion of Poland and to crush the Polish military, making the Free State of Danzig part of Third Reich territory. The occupation of Danzig was to be effected from East Prussia with the help of the German Navy.

Well aware that Poland also shared its borders with Russia, Ribbentrop set about cementing German-Russian relations, the Anti-Comintern Pact conveniently having been forgotten. Using the pretence that the deterioration of Polish-German relations was the fault of British policy, Ribbentrop went to Moscow with a letter from Hitler for Stalin, in which Hitler described the tension between Germany and Poland as having become intolerable. Because of the possible intervention of Britain and France, he suggested that it would be in both their interests if they signed a non-aggression pact. Stalin agreed and on 21 August 1939 the two countries signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Four days later Britain signed the Anglo-Polish Pact.

On 1 September 1939, German SS soldiers dressed as Polish soldiers, under the command of Lieutenant Alfred Naujocks, attacked and took over the German radio station at Gleiwitz. Claiming that Polish soldiers had attacked the radio station, Hitler stated that the German people had no other choice but to retaliate. He ordered his troops to cross the borders and his bombers to attack Warsaw.

Chamberlain gave Hitler another opportunity to withdraw but on hearing nothing from the German government announced in a memorable broadcast to the British people on the 3 September 1939:

This morning the British Ambassador in Berlin handed the German Government a final note stating that unless we heard from them by 11 o’clock that they were prepared at once to withdraw their troops from Poland a state of war would exist between us. I have to tell you now that no such undertaking has been received, and that consequently this country is at war with Germany.

Within days Britain had started to mobilise its armed forces.

Within a year of the Second World War starting, the British army found itself on the back foot and retreating in an effort to escape the oncoming German army. In the hasty retreat, a number of soldiers and airmen found themselves stranded behind enemy lines. Initially the majority of men who found themselves in this position, or had been captured, belonged to the BEF (British Expeditionary Force). In later years this number was increased by allied airmen who had been shot down whilst on raids on targets over occupied Europe, and a small number of Royal Naval personnel. It was from these beginnings that the various occupied countries formed their resistance organisations and escape lines.

The first British servicemen to be captured, were Sergeant George Booth and Aircraftsman Larry Slattery, who were flying a Blenheim bomber of 107 Squadron when they were shot down during an attack on Wilhelmshaven, the day after war was declared. The first officers to be captured were Squadron Leader Murray and Pilot Officer Thompson. They were shot down whilst attacking German warships in the Wilhelmshaven area just four days later. The German sailors who picked them up from the sea had no idea what they were going to do with them. Initially they treated them like civilians and put them in the local prison, but later transferred them to an old fortress in the middle of Germany – Spangenberg. The British government asked the Red Cross to keep an eye on them and look after their welfare.

Later, other prisoners of war found themselves taken to various prison camps where, in the main, they were treated reasonably well. There were of course a number of prison camps in which the inmates were treated dreadfully and suffered harsh and barbaric treatment at the hands of their guards. The Germans opened up special camps for airmen, soldiers and naval personnel, and even separated the officers in some cases. Special camps, known as
Sonderlagers,
for persistent escapees were also set up, such as
Offizierenlager (Oflag) IVC
(Colditz Castle) in Saxony and
Stammlager Luftwaffe (Stalag Luft) III
near Sagan.

One of the most famous of all the German prisoner of war camps was Colditz Castle. Originally built in 1014 as a hunting lodge for the Saxon kings, Colditz became a castle over the following years because it occupied a stronghold position on top of a hill. It was destroyed in the fifteenth century but rebuilt in 1583. Over the next 200 years it changed hands through various wars, and then in 1800 was converted into a prison. Thirty years later it became a mental hospital, and remained as such until the outbreak of the Second World War when it was turned into a prisoner of war camp for Polish officers after the fall of Poland. In November 1940, a small number of RAF officers arrived to join the Polish officers, followed by six British army officers and then some French officers. During the next few years the camp became truly international with the addition of Belgians, Dutch, Canadians, South Africans, Indians and a number of other nationalities.