Hara-Kiri: Japanese Ritual Suicide (8 page)

However courageous it may be to perform
seppuku,
the custom is not a recommendable one. Not only is a life lost, but also it is a pity to cause one's parents, wife, and children bitter grief. His Late Excellency Ietsuna, the Fourth
Shogun,
prohibited self-immolation. Your Excellency too should strictly prohibit all kinds of
seppuku.

This was humanitarian advice, and it endangered Bushido. Such ideas must have been held by many others, though none of them left their views in writing for posterity.

The custom of
shinju
did much damage to the cause of feudalism. Under the feudal system, one married to beget issue who in turn would continue to serve the feudal lord. Therefore, choosing a bride was not a job for a young, inexperienced man; it was presumed that the parents would choose the best partner for their son. True love and romance played no part in this scheme of things.

Opposition to this suppression of the freedom to love whom one pleased was expressed by
shinju,
where the lovers put themselves beyond the control of society.

Not only was
shinju a
denial of feudal authority, but, when it was done by a samurai and a woman, it also meant a significant change in basic attitudes. In the Japanese code of Bushido, there is the inherent disdain of women (an influence of Confucianism) which is quite different from European chivalry. It is remarkable that some men, however few, were brave enough to love as they pleased in such a social and educational environment. A poignant example was that of Fujita Geki. Born into a house that was a direct feudatory vassal of the Tokugawa Shogun, he was heir to an annual income of 5,000
koku
*
of rice. He fell in love with a geisha named Ayaginu and they committed
shinju
in a farmhouse. A popular song about his tragic romance had a wide circulation in Edo:

Shall I bide with you?

Or take the stipend of

Five thousand, which will it be?

—
Better to bide with you!

On the other hand, protesting voices were raised against the declining morals of the samurai. Yamaoka Shummei, in his book, writes:

It is the grand age of peace. People neglect, therefore, warlike preparations, looking upon the ancient facts of seppuku or self-immolation as hateful affairs. To my narrow knowledge, I never hear of a man these days who attempts to investigate such matters. Even if there were such a man, there would be no one who knows enough to teach him.

However, the awakening of humanism among the samurai class itself, as well as financial distress enhanced by inflation caused by commercial prosperity on the part of the merchants, were contributory to lessening the confidence of the ruling class.

A contemporary
senryu
poem (see footnote, related comments on page 88) eloquently caricatured the plight of the samurai:

The samurai will use

A toothpick even if he hasn't dined!

Decline of Bushido

Dr. Erwin Baelz refers to the essence of Bushido as a severance of emotion from intellect. By this, he means to explain the enigma of the samurai's stoic composure in the face of death by saying that the samurai was able to repress his emotions. However, this view may be disputed. Under the feudal social order, reasoning, i.e., intellect, was not allowed, because it could lead to last-minute rebellions. What was expected of the samurai was "dedicated loyalty" and "filial piety." Any order or statement of the master or father was exempt from critical judgment. Only blind obedience was required. The edicts of the lord were to be obeyed. They brought boon or disaster to the fief or cause.

These edicts of "shalt" and "shalt not" were, after all, based on only the will of the respective lords, and not on the ethical sciences or inherent human reason. In extreme forms, they were nothing more than a sort of madness that excluded critical judgments of value.

A strikingly extreme view along this line can be found in a volume entitled
Hagakure.
According to its writer:

Bushido
means to die insane. Great deeds of
Bushido
cannot be done if one is sound in mind. Just go mad, and die mad. Moreover, if a
samurai
rises to the level where he can discern good and evil, he will not be able to do great work, because he will know the uses of fear. Don't think of loyalty or filial duty. Just die mad. In so doing, the causes of loyalty and duty to the master will be served.

This particular line of reasoning, or rather
a priori
theory, goes a step further to say that even to choose the time and place for one's own death was wrong and that a desire for fame and high reputation was evil.
Hagakure
sharply criticized the otherwise highly lauded vendetta and death of the 47
ronin
who took revenge for the death of their abused master, pointing out that their methods were in conflict even with their own code of Bushido. However, historian Ishida Bunshiro criticizes this dissenting view and calls it an isolated prejudice.

The opposing point of view taken by
Hagakure
becomes even more remarkable when one realizes that it was written in the latter part of the Tokugawa Era, when Bushido had attained its zenith.

A lack of fear of death was one of the major pillars in the moral code of the samurai. Numerous books were written contributory to refining and elevating this view. At no other time in the history of Japan was theorizing and speculation about death so widespread as in this period.

Both
Hagakure
and another work,
Nabeshima Rongo,
state that "Bushido is nothing but a road to death."

Yamaga Soko, the famous teacher of military science for the 47
ronin,
also taught the samurai to concentrate and meditate on death. In the same view
Hagakure
states that the "spirit of Bushido is realized when one imagines himself to be dying; this he can do every morning and every evening." Yamamoto Tsunetomo, the author
of Hagakure,
wrote, "One should expect death daily, so, when the time comes, he can die in peace. Calamity, when it occurs, is not so dreadful as was feared. It is foolish to torment one's self beforehand with vain imaginings. Be resigned always to the thought that the fate of a servant (that is, samurai) is either to become a
ronin
or to commit seppuku."

He goes on, "Tranquilize your mind every morning, and imagine the moment when you may be torn and mangled by arrows, guns, lances, and swords, swept away by great waves, thrown into a fire, struck down by thunderbolts, shaken by earthquakes, falling from a precipice, dying of disease, or dead from an unexpected accident: die every morning in your mind, and then you will not fear death!"

As can be seen in the foregoing, the attitude gradually moved away from the original idea of loyalty to the master for the sake of great military accomplishment. It proceeded down the speculative road toward the "metaphysics of death." Increasingly in proportion to this tendency, the act of seppuku was transformed into a ceremony accompanied by complicated formalities.

Thus, the role played by seppuku became so vital that it came to be called "the flower of
Bushido"
Therefore, mental preparedness for seppuku (and death) as well as the acquisition of a knowledge of the ceremonial techniques became mandatory for samurai. In samurai families, therefore, this vital instruction began in early childhood.

The Gempuku Ceremony

Children of samurai were brought up to believe that one's life is not for one's self. When they reached the age of seven, boys were given a
wakizashi
or short sword, while girls were given a short dirk as protection. They were repeatedly instructed to behave in compliance with the code. When a boy became fifteen, he was given both long and short swords in a solemn ceremony, simultaneously being taught the meaning of these swords. How cynical it was that these swords were often not used against an enemy but against himself. If a women had to kill herself to protect her chastity, she dressed as for her wedding, and then cut the carotid artery in her throat.

With this rite of
gempuku,
boys were initiated to adulthood. The first thing taught at this ceremony was how to commit seppuku and how to draw the dirk out from the right abdomen and then up to cut the carotid artery.

The story of Taira-no-Munemori, a young general of the Heike, was long told to the children of samurai as an example they should not emulate.

When Minamoto-no-Yoritomo captured Taira-no-Munemori, who also held a ministership in the Imperial Household, the former wanted to avoid a direct order of decapitation, so he had a large carp laid out on a chopping board together with a dirk, thus suggesting self-destruction at Taira's own initiation. Taira did not understand this hint from Yoritomo and he struggled against death up to the last moment. This tale of his cowardice was often told to urge the children of samurai to accept death bravely when it was their lot.

Criticism by Commoners

Criticism of the ways of the samurai began to rise during the Edo Period among the class of commoners called
chonin.

In the Edo days, a satirical style of poetry called
senryu
*
came into being, and is popular even now. It is a precise style in which each poem is comprised of seventeen syllables that are divided into lines of five, seven, and five syllables respectively. One of them runs like this: "Teaching cutting/The abdomen, they love..."

It was intended as sharp satire that the samurai who supposedly loved their children, taught them how to kill themselves. Since open criticism of the samurai by commoners was dangerous, such
senryu
were a means of resistance against the inhumane code of Bushido. Considering the extremely weak standing of the commoners, the
senryu
were a brave attempt to direct criticism against the ruling classes.

Wada Katsunari, in his
Philosophy of Seppuku,
interprets the foregoing poem as a eulogy in praise of the samurai education, but the historical trend of
senryu
will not permit this interpretation. It is not a style for eulogy, but for satire and indirect resistance against feudal authority. Wada's interpretation becomes insupportable when these reasons are considered. Moreover, the humor would be lost if Wada's view were accepted, and satirical humor is the essence of
senryu.

*
Wada Katsunari:
Philosophy of Seppuku,
P. 148-9.

*
It was during this period (in its fourteenth year) that the 47
ronin
chose to die for their master, while other samurai were imitating the luxurious effeteness of the
chonin.

*
A lord's rank in the hierarchy was shown by the amount of rice his fief produced. One
koku
is 4.9629 bushels.

*
Similar to the form of the better known haiku,
senryu
differs in intent.

V

REVIVAL OF SEPPUKU

An Imperfect Renovation

T
HE THIRTY
years following 1868 were an important period for Japan, during which she emerged as a modern state. The beginning of this new age is known as the Meiji
Ishin
or the Meiji Renovation. It is more commonly known as the "Meiji Restoration" from the fact that hegemony was restored to the Emperor. As an age of national re-orientation, it was certainly a "renovation," but from the retrospective point of view, it was indeed a "restoration."

Granting its great attainments, the Meiji Renovation was nevertheless an imperfect one. The overwhelming tide of foreign influence actually did not allow Japan adequate time to modernize thoroughly the structure of the state. In June, 1853, Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry of the U. S. anchored off Uraga with a fleet of four warships, carrying an official communication from President Fillmore. Perry again came to Japan the following year with seven warships, and Japan was obliged to conclude a treaty and to open two ports, Shimoda and Hakodate.

One month after the first visit of Commodore Perry, there came a Russian Admiral, Eufimii Wassilievitch Putiatin, to Nagasaki with four warships, requesting a treaty as well as a fixing of the border within Saghalin. Then there came a considerable competition among the powers —Britain, Holland, France, etc.—who rushed to Japan one after the other to conclude treaties. Aroused from its long isolation, Japan became a busy center of international affairs.

Thus pressed by the great powers, Japan did not have adequate time to overhaul properly the feudalistic system of the state.

At the same time, the Meiji Government had to persuade the old feudatories to submit to modernization by offers of suitable compensation for power and property forfeited. All feudal lords, far from being demoted or banished, received honorable treatment and were granted titles, together with the Court nobles.

In effect, the Meiji Renovation was an entity born of compromise between modern parliamentarianism and old feudalism. Feudalistic remnants held over by the Meiji Government formed the foundation of the modern state. To a degree, the international situation in the Far East afforded a justification for this militarism. Russian ambitions in Korea and Manchuria appeared on the horizon just as Japan was modernizing its army and navy.

Moreover, as the rapidly growing modern industries of Japan needed the China market, the military power was required to enter this market in competition with the great powers, who maintained military forces in China.

Unification of Objects of Loyalty

During the feudal age, one's loyalty was directed toward his own master, and loyalty objects were multiplex. The Meiji Restoration, however, concentrated this loyalty on one point of focus: the Emperor. Titles without concomitant privileges were given to the older class of samurai, called
shizoku;
otherwise, all the people received equal treatment in the new military order—there were neither samurai nor
chonin.

The Imperial Rescript to Military Men of 1882 was an epoch-making revitalization of Bushido, in which all the major teachings of Bushido of the past were included in essence. It ran, in abbreviated form, as follows:

The military man's first duty is to be loyal.

The military man shall be upright in his demeanor.

The military man shall highly esteem health and strength.

The military man shall esteem fidelity.

The military man shall make frugality a basic principle.

All soldiers conscripted from the people were obliged to memorize this code. Whereas the philosophy of Bushido was taught to the elite only during the Edo Period, this Imperial Rescript influenced the whole nation.

Military officers were forbidden to interfere in politics. At this point, the Bushido of the Meiji Era was purer than the older variety. It was the violation of this principle that plunged Japan into a disastrous war.

Speculation About Bushido

In the late 1880's, a class of people called
Nippon-shugisha
(people who believed in Japan's divinely ordained leading place among nations) began to appear. These people became very active and vocal after the victories Japan won in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-5) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5). This rising nationalism and expansionism encouraged the revival of Bushido.

From this period on, books about Bushido appeared one after the other. The first and best-known internationally was that of Dr. Inazo Nitobe, written in English under the title of
Bushido
(1899) with the intent of letting foreigners know what Bushido is. A steady flow of books on the subject followed in rapid succession.

Aside from these books, popular amusements such as
naniwa-bushi,
(a kind of intonated recital),
kodan
(story-narration), and kabuki contributed to teaching the historical tales based on Bushido, thus influencing the masses.

Modern Seppuku

Two dominant principles flowed through from the Meiji Renovation on. One was the ideology built around worship of the Emperor which was a centralized-authoritarian-state ideology with expansionist tendencies. The other ideology supported the people's liberties and rights, that is, constitutionalism. The former carried the strong reaction to feudalism, while the latter, of course, was democratic. These two ideologies, combined as they were under a single regime, caused sporadic conflicts throughout the course of modern politics in Japan.

In the second year of the Meiji Restoration, an important conference was held to discuss Japan's future course. One of the attendees, named Ono Seigoro, proposed to abolish the custom of seppuku. Out of 206 persons, 197 voted against this proposal. Three supported it, and six abstained from voting. The reasons given for opposition were:

1. Seppuku is the shrine of the national spirit and is, in itself, a moral act.

2. It is a great ornament to the Empire.

3. It is a supporting pillar of the national policy.

4. It will nourish the pure pursuit of honor; it will simultaneously be the source of a flow of beautiful emotion as found in the samurai class, which is itself a supporting pillar of the nation.

5. It is a spur to religious sentiment and to moral aspirations.

Not only was Ono opposed by the majority in his bold proposal but he was also assassinated soon afterward.

The abolition of seppuku was frequently proposed and promoted in various circles; in the new criminal code promulgated in 1870, the word seppuku was simply altered to
jisai
(self-disposal). It was therein stipulated that the children of samurai, that is, the
shizoku,
alone would be permitted to dispose of themselves and that their heirs would continue to receive the hereditary stipends.

In the later-revised criminal code (1873), life imprisonment was substituted for
jisai.
With that, seppuku (and
jisai)
permanently disappeared from the penal code of Japan.

Even after the samurai caste was abolished, a man by the name of Kumoi Tatsuo conspired with scores of former samurai to revive the feudal
bakufu
or Shogunate, but failed. Another alarming retrogression was seen in the 9th year of Meiji. A revolt took place in Kumamoto by a fanatic group called the Shimpuren (God-wind League) who opposed the edict abolishing the wearing of swords. They were beaten down but it showed how tenacious remnants of feudalism struggled against the modernization of Japan.

Slowly and gradually seppuku disappeared, at least as an official method of punishment. However, cases of individual seppuku continued until even recent years. As long as there are devotees of Bushido, its flower may bloom. The following examples suggest this:

Around the 13th year of Meiji (1880), the movement to establish a parliament was started. Arguments in the newspapers
*
grew more heated day by day. The advocates and dissidents, coming to Tokyo from the rural areas carrying placards with written opinions, were innumerable. The government tried to suppress these movements, and sporadic violence occurred. There were some who killed themselves at the height of the trouble. One disemboweled himself and while dying, painted the rising sun on a piece of white cloth with his blood and held it aloft.

On August 18 of the same year, a military man committed seppuku at the front gate of the temporary Imperial residence in Akasaka. This news was disseminated widely. Being a corporal of the First Regiment in Tokyo, he was carrying a letter to the Minister of the Imperial Household. One month after his death, a letter to his mother was brought to light, which said in part:

... These days, those who follow the Imperial instructions are anxious about the situation that prevails in our country. They come to Tokyo to appeal to the government for the establishment of a parliament. The government
should consider their supplications. Not only does it not
do so but it tries to repress these loyal persons. There can be no greater regret. I have decided to encourage these supplicants by sacrificing my own self. I am sorry to be lacking in filial duty to my benevolent mother. However, if a parliament is not set up, both the people as well as the Emperor will have trouble in days to come...

Then there was the self-immolation of General and Mrs. Nogi who committed suicide according to the code of Bushido when Emperor Meiji passed away in 1912.

Professor Tanimoto Yutaka of the Tokyo Imperial University, a Doctor of Literature, sharply criticized them for this and as a result, was expelled from the university. From that time until the end of World War II, it was taboo to criticize General and Mrs. Nogi. The General was enshrined as a god of war, and his memory was much utilized for the purposes of ultra-nationalistic education.

Another case which received wide publicity was that of a youth who assassinated a high official. Stirred up by the murder of a Japanese during a revolution in China, the China situation was fiercely debated in 1913. On September 5, Abe Moritaro, Director of the Political Affairs Bureau of the Foreign Ministry, was assassinated. The assassin was a youth of eighteen, carrying a statement called a
zankanjo
(a written vindication of an assassin's deed) as well as a letter directed to a certain lawyer, into whose house he fled and committed seppuku, on a map of China. In the suicide note to his parents, this young assassin wrote:

The existence of Abe is a great loss to the country. If I now assassinate him, the whole nation, including the Foreign Ministry, will awaken, especially the officials with wrong notions. Moreover, I can quicken the awakening of the young people. My single life is almost nothing in comparison to my contribution in defending our country...

... I don't want to cause any further trouble and so I will disembowel myself according to the traditional rites, thus dedicating myself to His Imperial Majesty.

When the U.S. Senate passed the Immigration Bill in April, 1924, indignant cries were raised in various parts of Japan. A certain man, carrying a suicide note addressed to the American people and calling himself an anonymous citizen of the Japanese Empire, disemboweled himself in front of the U.S. Embassy. The letter read:

Taking advantage of the fact that Your Excellency, Ambassador Siras E. Woods, has a deep understanding of and sympathy towards Japan, I want to request your good offices in calling forth a profound soul-searching by all the American people.

His message was:

Please eliminate the anti-Japanese stipulations from the new Immigration Law. Whereas America occupies an important position as an advocate of peace from the humanistic point of view, I am dumbfounded to see the inhuman, anti-Japanese bill passed by both Houses. I had better die to study the universal love that America has proclaimed, to listen to the words of Christ [he was a Christian], to call forth deep soul searching on the part of your people, and to pray for the happiness of America. It is better to thus die than to hold rancor in myself against America.

Lieutenant Colonel Kuga Noboru, a military officer taken captive, killed himself on the battlefield at Howan-chin in China in an unusual case of seppuku. He was seriously wounded by a bullet and fell unconscious. When he came to, he found himself a prisoner. He found that his pistol was still on his person, undiscovered by his captors, and he used it to commit suicide. In his farewell note, he wrote:

In destroying myself, I wanted to commit
seppuku,
according to the rites of
Bushido.
However, the blade of my sword was bent during the fight and I could not withdraw it from its scabbard. Hence I was obliged to use my pistol against my wishes.

In his death poem, called
jisei,
he said he would go the way of samurai, observing the teachings of his father. Shanghai Military Headquarters announced his death, in accordance with his desires, using the terminology
jijin,
which suggests the use of a sword in taking one's own life.