Masters of the Planet (41 page)

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Leakey, L. S. B., P. V. Tobias, J. R. Napier. 1964. A new species of genus
Homo
from Olduvai Gorge.
Nature
202: 7–9.

Leakey, M. G., F. Spoor, F. H. Brown, P. N. Gathogo, L. N. Leakey, I. McDougall. 2001. New hominin genus from eastern Africa shows diverse middle Pliocene lineages.
Nature
410: 433–440.

Scott, R. S., P. S. Ungar, T. S. Bergstrom, C. A. Brown, F. E. Grine, M. F. Teaford, A. Walker. 2005. Dental microwear texture analysis shows within-species diet variability in fossil hominins.
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C. P. 2006. The origin of childhood.
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Suwa, G., B. Asfaw, Y. Beyene, T. D. White, S. Katoh, S. Nagaoka, H. Nakaya, K. Uzawa, P. Renne, G. WoldeGabriel. 1997. The first skull of
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Walker, A. C., R. E. F. Leakey, J. M. Harris, F. H. Brown. 1986. 2.5-Myr
Australopithecus boisei
from west of Lake Turkana, Kenya.
Nature
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Wood, B. 1991.
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Wood, B., M. Collard. The human genus.
Science
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CHAPTER 5: STRIDING OUT

The “Man the Toolmaker” concept was most widely popularized by Kenneth Oakley (1949 and many subsequent editions). Louis Leakey et al. (1964) named
Homo habilis,
and the similarities of its type material to australopiths was noted by, among others, Robinson (1965) and Pilbeam and Simons (1965). KNM-ER 1470 was first described (simply as a member of
Homo
) in 1973 by R. E. F. Leakey, who by 1976 was calling it
Homo habilis.
It was allocated to
Homo rudolfensis
by Alexeev (1986), and transferred again to
Kenyanthropus
by M. G. Leakey et al. (2001). See Tattersall (2009) for the history of other hominids allocated to
Homo habilis, Homo rudolfensis,
and “early
Homo,
” and see Schwartz and Tattersall (2005) for morphological discussion of these fossils. Dobzhansky's views on variability among early hominids were first published in 1944, and May's influential Cold Spring Harbor paper in 1950. For a discussion of the Evolutionary Synthesis and its sequelae in evolutionary biology, see Eldredge (1985); specifically in paleoanthropology, see Tattersall (2009).

Wood and Collard (1999) reappraised the content of the genus
Homo.
Dubois described
Pithecanthropus erectus
most fully in 1894; see Schwartz and Tattersall (2005) and Tattersall (2007) for a full discussion of the
Homo erectus
/
Homo ergaster
issue. KNM-WT 15000 was described and analyzed most comprehensively in the various contributions to Walker and Leakey (1993). MacLarnon and Hewitt (1999) reviewed the wider significance of the vertebral canal in breathing control. Broca's area has been recently reappraised in some detail by Amunts et al. (2010). Growth and life history features of the Turkana Boy were reappraised by Dean et al. (2001), Dean and Smith (2009), and Graves et al. (2010), and the East Turkana footprints were reported by Bennett et al. (2009). The significance of brain size in a juvenile
Homo erectus
was analyzed by Coqueugniot et al. (2004). Goldschmidt (1940) published the notion of the “hopeful monster,” and Peichel et al. (2001) presented results on gene regulation in sticklebacks. Gene expression in tissues of chimpanzees and humans was reported by Khaitovich et al. (2005).

Alexeev, V. P. 1986.
The Origin of the Human Race.
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Amunts, K., M. Lenzen, A. D. Friederici, A. Schleicher, P. Morosan, N. PalomeroGallagher, K. Zilles. 2010. Broca's region: Novel organization principles and multiple receptor mapping.
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Bennett, M. R., J. W. K. Harris, B. G. Richmond, D. R. Braun, E. Mbua, P. Kiura, D. Olago, M. Kibunjia, C. Omuombo, A. K. Behrensmeyer, D. Huddart, S. Gonzalez. 2009. Early hominin foot morphology based on 1.5 million-year-old footprints from Ileret, Kenya.
Science
323: 1197–1201.

Coqueugniot, H., J.-J. Hublin, F. Veillon, F. Houët, T. Jacob. 2004. Early brain growth in
Homo erectus
and implications for cognitive ability.
Nature
431: 299–302.

Dean, C., M. G. Leakey, D. Reid, F. Schrenk, G. T. Schwartz, C. Stringer, A. Walker. 2001. Growth processes in teeth distinguish modern humans from
Homo erectus
and earlier hominins.
Nature
414: 628–631.

Dean, M. C., B. H. Smith. 2009. Growth and development of the Nariokotome Youth, KNM-WT 15000. In Grine, F. E. et al. (eds.).
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Homo. Heidelberg: Springer, 101–120.

Dobzhansky, T. 1944. On species and races of living and fossil man.
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Dubois, E. 1894. Pithecanthropus erectus,
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Eldredge, N. 1985.
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Goldschmidt, R. B. 1940.
The Material Basis of Evolution.
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Graves, R. R., A. C. Lupo, R. C. McCarthy, D. J. Wescott, D. L. Cunningham. 2010. Just how strapping was KNM-WT15000?
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Khaitovich, O., I. Hellmann, W. Enard, K. Nowick, M. Leinweber, H. Franz, G. Weiss, M. Lachmann, S. Pääbo. 2005. Parallel patterns of evolution in the genomes and transcriptomes of humans and chimpanzees.
Science
309: 1850–1854.

Leakey, L. S. B., P. V. Tobias, J. R. Napier. 1964. A new species of
Homo
from Olduvai Gorge.
Nature
202: 7–9.

Leakey, M. G., F. Spoor, F. H. Brown, P. N. Gathogo, L. N. Leakey, I. McDougall. 2001. New hominin genus from eastern Africa shows diverse middle Pliocene lineages.
Nature
410: 433–440.

Leakey, R. E. F. 1973. Evidence for an advanced Plio-Pleistocene hominid from East Rudolf, Kenya.
Nature
242: 447–450.

Leakey, R. E. F. 1976. Hominids in Africa.
Amer. Scientist
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Maclarnon, A. M., G. P. Hewitt. 1999. The evolution of human speech: The role of enhanced breathing control.
Amer. Jour. Phys. Anthropol.
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Mayr, E. 1950. Taxonomic categories in fossil hominids.
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Oakley, K. P. 1949.
Man the Tool-Maker.
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Peichel, C. K., K. S. Nereng, K. A. Ohgl, B. L. E. Cole, P. F. Colosimo, C. A. Buerkle, D. Schluter, D. M. Kingsley. 2001. The genetic architecture of divergence between threespine stickleback species.
Nature
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Pilbeam, D. R., E. L. Simons. 1965. Some problems of hominid classification.
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Robinson,
J. T. 1965.
Homo ‘habilis'
and the australopithecines.
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Schwartz, J. H., I. Tattersall. 2005.
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Australopithecus, Paranthropus, Orrorin,
and Overview.
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Tattersall, I. 2007.
Homo ergaster
and its contemporaries. In W. Henke, I. Tattersall (eds.).
Handbook of Paleoanthropology, Vol. 3.
Heidelberg: Springer.

Tattersall, I. 2009.
The Fossil Trail: How We Know What We Think We Know about Human Evolution.
2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.

Walker, A. C., R. E. F. Leakey. 1993.
The Nariokotome
Homo erectus
skeleton.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wood, B., M. Collard. 1999. The human genus.
Science
284: 65–71.

CHAPTER 6: LIFE ON THE SAVANNA

See Aiello and Wheeler (1995) for the “expensive tissue hypothesis” (guts and brain). Body and pubic lice were investigated by Reed et al. (2007). The putative early importance of aquatic resources is discussed by contributions in Cunnane and Stewart (2010). Evidence of fire was reported from Swartkrans by Brain and Sillen (1988) and from Chesowanja by Gowlett et al. (1981). The argument for very early hominid use of fire has been laid out in most detail by Wrangham (2009). Sandgathe et al. (2011) have made the opposite case, that habitual use of fire came very late. Lack of prosociality in chimpanzees has been demonstrated by, among others, Silk et al. (2005). A particularly interesting review of the Oldowan is by Plummer (2004), and raw material transport at Kanjera is analyzed by Braun et al. (2008).

Aiello, L., P. Wheeler. 1995. The expensive-tissue hypothesis: The brain and the digestive system in human and primate evolution.
Curr. Anthropol.
36: 199–221.

Brain, C. K., A. Sillen. 1988. Evidence from the Swartkrans cave for the earliest use of fire.
Nature
336: 464–466.

Braun, D. R., T. Plummer, P. Ditchfield, J. V. Ferrari, D. Maina, L. C. Bishop, R. Potts. 2008. Oldowan behavior and raw material transport: Perspectives from the Kanjera Formation.
Jour. Archaeol. Sci.
35: 2329–2345.

Cunnane, S. C., K. M. Stewart (eds.). 2010.
Human Brain Evolution: The Influence of Freshwater and Marine Food Resources.
Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

Gowlett, J. A. J., J. W. K. Harris, D. Walton, B. A. Wood. 1981. Early archaeological sites, hominid remains and traces of fire from Chesowanja, Kenya.
Nature
294: 125–129.

Plummer, T. 2004. Flaked stones and old bones: Biological and cultural evolution at the dawn of technology.
Yrbk Phys. Anthropol.
47: 118–164.

Reed, D. L., J. E. Light, J. M. Allen, J. J. Kirchman. 2007. Pair of lice lost or paradise regained: The evolutionary history of anthropoid primate lice.
BMC Biol.
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Sandgathe, D. M., H. L. Dibble, P. Goldberg, S. P. McPherron, A. Turq, L. Niven, J. Hodgkins. 2011. Timing of the appearance of habitual fire use.
Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA,
doi/10.173/pnas.1106759108.

Silk, J. B., S. F. Brosnan, J. Vonk, D. J. Povinelli, A. S. Richardson, S. P. Lambeth, J. Mascaro, S. J. Schapiro. 2005. Chimpanzees are indifferent to the welfare of unrelated group members.
Nature
437: 1357–1359.

Wrangham,
R. 2009.
Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human.
New York: Basic Books.

CHAPTER 7: OUT OF AFRICA . . . AND BACK

The first Dmanisi hominid was described by Gabunia and Vekua (1995), and later ones by Gabunia et al. (2000a,b), Gabounia et al. (2002), de Lumley and Lordkipanidze (2006) and Lordkipanidze (2007); for dating see de Lumley et al. (2002). The toothless Dmanisi skull was interpreted by Lordkipanidze et al. (2005), and for environmental reconstruction see Messager et al. (2010). An up-to-date review of handaxe cultures (and indeed all ancient stone tool making traditions) can be found in Klein (2009). The Olorgesailie hominid and tool assemblage was described by Potts et al. (2004), and the Isimila site by Howell et al. (1972). Earliest Acheulean was reported by Lepre et al. (2011). Holloway et al. (2004) list fossil hominid brain sizes, and describe endocasts. The Buia hominid was described by Abbate et al. (1998); the Daka specimen by Asfaw et al. (2002); and the two lineages at Ileret by Spoor et al. (2007). Brown et al. (2004) described
Homo floresiensis;
for additional discussion see Martin et al. (2006) and Jungers and Baab (2009), and bibliographies therein.

Abbate, E., A. Albianelli, A. Azzaroli, M. Benvenuti, B. Tesfamariam, P. Bruin, N. Cipriani, R. J. Clarke, G. Ficcarelli, R. Macchiarelli, G. Napoleone, M. Papini, L. Rook, M. Sagri, T. M. Tecle, D. Torre, I. Villa. 1998. A one-million-year-old
Homo
cranium from the Danakil (Afar) Depression of Eritrea.
Nature
393: 458–460.

Asfaw, B., W. H. Gilbert, Y. Beyene, W. K. Hart, P. R. Renne, G. WoldeGabriel, E. S. Vrba, T. D. White. 2002. Remains of
Homo erectus
from Bouri, Middle Awash, Ethiopia.
Nature
416: 317–320.

Brown, P., T. Sutikna, M. J. Morwood, R. P. Soejono, Jatmiko, E. W. Saptomo, R. A. Due. 2004. A new small-bodied hominin from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia.
Nature
431: 1055–1061.

de Lumley, H., D. Lordkipanidze, G. Féraud, T. Garcia, C. Perrenoud, C. Falguères, J. Gagnepain, T. Saos, P. Voinchet. 2002. Datation par la méthode
⁴⁰
Ar/
39
Ar de la couche de cendres volcaniques (couche VI) de Dmanissi (Géorgie) qui a livré des restes d'hominidés fossils de 1.81 Ma.
C. R. Palévol.
1: 181–189.

Gabounia, Léo, M-A. de Lumley, A. Vekua, D. Lordkipanidze, H. de Lumley. 2002. Découverte d'un nouvel hominidé à Dmanissi (Transcaucasie, Géorgie).
C. R. Palevol
1: 243–253.