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Authors: Francis Fukuyama

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21: INSTITUTIONS, DOMESTIC OR IMPORTED

22: LINGUA FRANCAS

Â Â
1
. Some historians talk about the existence of states and kingdoms in the western and eastern halves of southern Nigeria, but few of these polities rose past the level of chiefdoms to become true states. The dominant form of social organization remained tribal. There had been some unification of Yoruba-speaking peoples under the kingdoms of Oyo, centered on the city of Ife, and Benin near the Niger River delta (not to be confused with the present-day country of Benin). But these had begun to break down in internecine warfare by the time the British arrived in force late in the nineteenth century. Northern Nigeria had larger political structures, primarily due to the influence of Islam as an organizing ideology. The North had long been linked to the Middle East through trans-Saharan trade routes, leading to the conversion of the Hausa polities and Borno to Islam late in the eleventh century. The Caliphate of Sokoto was formed early in the nineteenth century when the Fulani people under a charismatic leader named Usman dan Fodio launched a jihad and conquered the Hausa dynasties. As Atul Kohli has pointed out, even though the Sokoto Caliphate was one of the largest political units in West Africa, it remained far less developed than states in other parts of the world. It had no centralized army or bureaucracy and could not enforce its writ over a clearly defined territory. It was more properly a chiefdom or center of a large tribal confederation than a state. See Falola and Heaton,
A History of Nigeria
, pp. 23, 29â34, 62â73; Atul Kohli,
State-Directed Development: Political Power and Industrialization in the Global Periphery
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 297.

23: THE STRONG ASIAN STATE

Â Â
1
. For a study emphasizing the promarket nature of policy in East Asia, see World Bank,
The East Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). The classic studies of industrial policy in East Asia include Chalmers Johnson,
MITI and the Japanese Miracle
(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1982); Robert Wade,
Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); and Alice H. Amsden,
Asia's Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1989). For a more contemporary account of industrial policy in China, see Justin Yifu Lin, “Lessons from the Great Recession,” in Birdsall and Fukuyama, eds.,
New Ideas in Development After the Financial Crisis
. For cultural interpretations, see Lee Kuan Yew's interview with Fareed Zakaria, “A Conversation with Lee Kuan Yew,”
Foreign Affairs
73, no. 2 (1994): 109â27; and Lawrence E. Harrison,
Jews, Confucians, and Protestants: Cultural Capital and the End of Multiculturalism
(Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2013).

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