Sex, Marriage and Family in World Religions (79 page)

Confucianism
375

She is made to wear a wrap-cloth.

She is made to play with pottery.

She has no wrong and right.

Only wine and food are for her to talk about.

May she not send her father and mother any troubles.

[From Paul Rakita Goldin,
The Culture of Sex in Ancient China
(Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2002), pp. 12, 22–25]

THE
ANALECTS (LUNYU)
OF CONFUCIUS

Confucius (traditional dates, 551–479 bce) was China’s earliest moral philosopher. China in the period was divided into larger and small states that often fought with each other. As a young man Confucius served in the court of his home state of Lu without gaining much influence. After leaving Lu he wan-dered through neighboring states with a small group of students, searching for a ruler who would take his advice. Although he yearned for a ruler to serve devotedly, he spent most of his life teaching young men who shared his aspirations for political service.

Confucius’s ideas are known to us primarily through the sayings recorded by his disciples in the
Analects (Lunyu)
. This book does not provide carefully organized or argued philosophical discourses, and the sayings seem to have been haphazardly arranged. Yet the
Analects
became a sacred book, memorized by beginning students and known to all educated people in China.

Confucius spoke of filial piety
(xiao)
as an important virtue. The word
xiao
had occurred in earlier texts primarily with reference to the ancestral cult—it referred to the obligation of sons to make offerings to their deceased parents and earlier ancestors. Confucius, however, gave it much broader meanings of obligation toward living as well as deceased parents.

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1:2 Master You said, “It is rare for a person who is filial to his parents and respectful to his older brothers to go against his superiors, and unheard of for those who do not go against their superiors to rebel against them. The gentleman devotes his efforts to the roots, for it is on the basis of them that the Way develops. Filial piety and fraternal respect are the root of goodness.” . . .

1:11 The Master said, “When your father is alive observe his intentions. When he is deceased, model yourself on the memory of his behavior. If in three years after his death you have not deviated from your father’s ways, then you may be considered a filial child.”

2:5 Meng Yizi inquired about filial piety. Confucius said, “Do not offend your parents.”

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Fan Zhi was giving Confucius a ride in a wagon, and Confucius told him, “Meng Sun questioned me about filial piety and I told him, ‘Do not offend your parents.’”

Fan Zhi said, “What are you driving at?”

Confucius replied, “When your parents are alive, serve them according to the rules of ritual. When they are deceased, give them a funeral and offer sacrifices to them according to the rules of ritual.” . . .

2:7 Ziyou inquired about filial piety. Confucius said, “Nowadays, filial piety is considered to be the ability to nourish one’s parents. But this obligation to nourish even extends down to the dogs and horses. Unless we have reverence for our parents, what makes us any different?”

4:18 The Master said, “You can be of service to your father and mother by remonstrating with them tactfully. If you perceive that they do not wish to follow your advice, then continue to be reverent toward them without offending or disobeying them; work hard and do not murmur against them.”

4:19 The Master said, “When your father and mother are alive, do not go rambling around far away. If you must travel, make sure you have a set destination.” . . .

4:21 The Master said, “It is unacceptable not to be aware of your parents’ ages.

Their advancing years are a cause for joy and at the same time a cause for sorrow.”

9:18 The Master said, “I have never seen anyone who loves virtue as much as sex.”

13:18 The Duke of She said to Confucius, “In my land there is an upright man. His father stole a sheep, and the man turned him in to the authorities.”

Confucius replied, “The upright men of my land are different. The father will shelter the son and the son will shelter the father. Righteousness lies pre-cisely in this.”

16:7 Confucius said, “There are three things a gentleman should guard against. In his youth, when his blood and
qi
are not yet settled, he should guard against lust. In his prime, when his blood and
qi
have stiffened, he should guard against anger. In his old age, when his blood and
qi
are in decline, he should guard against greed.

17:21 Zai Wo asked about the three-year mourning, saying “Even one year is long. If a gentleman gives up performing rituals for three years, the rites will suffer. If he gives up practicing music for three years, his music will deteriorate.

A year is enough for the old grain to be used up and the new grain to ripen and for the fire to be renewed.

The Master said, “Would you at that point be comfortable eating rice and wearing brocades.”

“I would.”

“If you are comfortable, then do it. The Gentleman in mourning finds no pleasure in food or music and no comfort in his home, which is why he refrains from them. Since you enjoy them, you can do them.”

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After Zai Wo left, the Master said, “Yu¨ has no compassion. For the first three years of a child’s life he is held by his parents. Three years of mourning is the common practice everywhere under Heaven. Didn’t Yu¨ receive three years’

love from his parents?” . . .

17:25 The Master said, “Only women and inferior men are difficult to take care of. If you treat them on familiar terms, they become insubordinate. If you keep your distance, they complain.”

18:4 The people of Qi sent some female musicians. Ji Huanzi accepted them and for three days did not hold audiences. Confucius left.

19:18 Zengzi said, “I have heard from Confucius that the filial piety of Meng Zhuangzi is such that it could also be attained by others, but his not changing his father’s ministers and his father’s government is a virtue difficult indeed to match.”

[Translated by Patricia Ebrey]

MENCIUS ON FILIAL PIETY

The most influential of Confucius’s early followers was Mencius (ca. 370-ca. 300

b c e). After studying with a grandson of Confucius, Mencius taught disciples and offered advice to rulers he visited. Mencius’s thought is known from the book named after him (Mengzi), which includes conversations between Mencius and rulers, other philosophers, and disciples. In many of these conversations Mencius advises rulers to rule through virtue rather than force. Like all Confucians, he accepted the high value placed on filial piety and occasionally discussed it. The passages below are all from the fourth chapter of his six-chapter work. The most often cited of them is 4A:26 on the overriding need for heirs.

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m e n c i u s ’ m e n g z i

4A:9 Mencius said, “The Way lies in what is near and yet people seek it far away. Service lies in what is easy, and yet people seek it in what is difficult. If everyone would be loving to his parents and treat elders with proper respect, the world would be at peace.” . . .

4A:19 Mencius said, “Of all forms of service, which is the greatest? It is the service of one’s parents. Of all kinds of vigilance, which is greatest? It is vigilance over one’s own body. I have heard of cases of people who by not losing their own bodies were able to serve their parents, but I have never heard of people who had lost their own bodies but were able to serve their parents. There are many who should be served, but serving one’s parents is the root of them all.

There are many things one should be vigilant about, but vigilance over one’s body is the root of them all.

“When Zengzi took care of [his father] Zeng Xi, he regularly supplied wine and meat. Before clearing it away, he would always ask to whom leftovers should 378

be given. When asked if there was extra he always said that there was. After Zeng Xi died, when Zeng Yuan was taking care of Zengzi, he regularly supplied wine and meat, but when he cleared it away he did not ask whom to give it to, and if asked if there was extra, would say that there was none, planning to serve it again. This is what is called “taking care of the mouth and body.” Zengzi’s approach can be called “taking care of the intentions.” In serving one’s parents, one should follow Zengzi’s model.” . . .

4A:26 Mencius said, “There are three things which are unfilial, and the worst of them is to have no heirs. It was because he had not heirs that Shun married without informing his parents. The superior person considered this equivalent to informing them.”

4A:27 Mencius said, “The core of humaneness is serving one’s parents. The core of duty is obeying one’s elder brother. The core of wisdom is recognizing these two truths and not departing from them. The core of ritual is regulating and adorning these two truths. The core of music is taking joy in these two.

When there is joy, they grow. When they grow, how can they be stopped? Once they cannot be stopped, unconsciously the feet begin to dance and the hands to move.”

[Translated by Patricia Ebrey]

HISTORICAL INCIDENTS FROM THE
ZUO ZHUAN

Below are three episodes from the
Zuo zhuan,
a late Zhou chronicle traditionally treated as a commentary to the
Spring and Autumn Annals,
the laconic chronicle of the state of Lu considered one of the Five Classics. The rulers whose activities are narrated in this source sometimes engaged in irregular sexual activity and suffered the consequences. These historical cases, thus, were treated as evidence of the human frailties of jealousy and lust, as well as the power of sexual attraction and ambition. An implicit theme is that men’s attraction to women leads them to do things not in the interests of their state or family line. Women, for their part, are depicted as manipulative, as often to benefit their children as themselves.

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d u k e h u a n 1 6 t h y e a r ( 6 9 6 b c ) Earlier, Duke Xuan of Wei committed incest with his father’s concubine Yi Jiang, and from this union was born Jizi. He was entrusted to the Ducal Son of the Right. A bride was brought for him from the state of Qi, but because she was beautiful, Duke Xuan took her for himself. From this union were born
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Shouzi and Shuo. Shouzi was entrusted to the Ducal Son of the Left. Yi Jiang committed suicide by strangling herself.

Duke Xuan’s bride from Qi plotted with her son Shuo to do away with Jizi.

As part of the plot, Duke Xuan ordered Jizi to go on a mission to Qi and arranged for robbers to lie in wait at Xin and kill him.

Shouzi informed his half brother Jizi of the plot and urged him to flee, but Jizi refused, saying, “Who would have any use for a son who disobeys his father’s orders? In a country where there are no fathers, such behavior might be acceptable.”

When the time for departure came, Shouzi gave Jizi wine to drink and then, placing Jizi’s banner on his own carriage, he set out ahead of Jizi. The robbers accordingly killed him.

When Jizi arrived, he said, “I’m the one you want—what fault has he committed? Please kill me!” The robbers killed him as well.

d u k e z h u a n g 2 8 t h y e a r ( 6 6 6 b c ) Duke Xian of Jin took a bride from the state of Jia but she bore no sons. He had a clandestine affair with Lady Jiang of Qi, the concubine of his father, Duke Wu, and from this liaison were born the daughter who later became the wife of Duke Mu of Chin and the son, Shensheng, who became Duke Xian’s designated heir. He also took two brides from the Rong people, Huji or Lady Hu of the Greater Rong, who bore him Chonger, and a daughter of the Lesser Rong, who bore him Yiwu.1 When the state of Jin attacked the Rong people of Li, the ruler of the Li Rong gave his daughter Liji or Lady Li to the duke. The duke took her home with him and she bore him a son named Xiqi. Her younger sister, who accompanied her, bore him a son named Zhuozi.

Lady Li enjoyed great favor with the duke and hoped to have her son Xiqi appointed heir. She accordingly bribed two ministers who also enjoyed the duke’s favor, Liang Wu and Dongguan Wu, and had them speak to the duke as follows: “Quwo is the site of our lord’s ancestral temple, while Pu and Qu are on the frontier of our lord’s realm. They must not be left without proper overseers. If the city of the ancestral temple lacks an overseer, the people will not view it with awe; and if the frontier stations lack overseers, the Rong tribes will be tempted to harbor ambitions. If the Rong harbor ambitions and the people of Jin look with contempt on their government, the state will suffer injury. We suggest that the heir apparent, Shensheng, be appointed overseer of Quwo, and Chonger and Yiwu be made overseers of Pu and Qu respectively. Then you can awe the people, put fear into the Rong, and at the same time make a display of the ruler’s merit.”

The two men were further instructed to say: “Since the lands of the barbarians
are so broad and vast, Jin should make Pu and Qu into cities of importance. Jin
will thus be broadening its territory—would that not be wise?”

380

Duke Xian was pleased.

In the summer he ordered the heir to take up residence in Quwo, Chonger to reside in the city of Pu, and Yiwu to reside in Qu. The remainder of his sons were all sent to outlying areas. Only the two sons of Lady Li and her younger sister remained in the capital city of Chiang. Thus the two ministers Liang Wu and Dongguan Wu joined with Lady Li in slandering the other sons of the duke and working to have Xiqi set up as heir. The men of Jin referred to this as “the teamwork of the two Wus.”

d u k e x a n g 2 5 t h y e a r ( 5 4 8 b c ) The wife of the lord of Tang in Qi was an older sister of Dongguo Yan, a retainer of Cui Shu. When the lord of Tang died, Dongguo Yan drove Cui Shu to the lord’s residence so he could offer condolences. Cui Shu observed the lord’s wife, Lady Jiang, and admired her beauty. He instructed Dongguo Yan to arrange a marriage.