Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors (66 page)

1.
In Greg Whincup, editor and translator,
The Heart of Chinese Poetry
(New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1987), p. 48.

2.
The principal sources for unattributed details on chimpanzee life in Chapters 14, 15, and 16 are Goodall, Nishida, and de Waal: Jane Goodall,
The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior
(Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1986); Goodall,
Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1990); Toshisada Nishida and Mariko Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, “Chimpanzees and Bonobos: Cooperative Relationships among Males,” Chapter 15 in Barbara B. Smuts, Dorothy L. Cheney, Robert M. Seyfarth, Richard W. Wrangham, and Thomas T. Struhsaker, editors,
Primate Societies
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); Nishida, “Local Traditions and Cultural Transmission,” Chapter 38 in Smuts
et al.
, eds.,
op. cit.;
Nishida, editor,
The Chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains: Sexual and Life History Strategies
(Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1990); Frans de Waal,
Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex among Apes
(New York: Harper & Row, 1982); de Waal,
Peacemaking among Primates
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989). Also other chapters of Smuts,
et al
.

3.
Chapter III, verse 1.

4.
Frans de Waal,
Peacemaking among Primates
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), p. 49.

5.
Frans de Waal,
Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex among Apes
(New York: Harper & Row, 1982), pp. 37, 38.

6.
Here is Darwin’s argument about pink bottoms in the season of love:

“In the discussion on Sexual Selection in my ‘Descent of Man,’ no case interested and perplexed me so much as the brightly-coloured hinder ends and adjoining parts of certain monkeys. As these parts are more brightly coloured in one sex than the other, and as they become more brilliant during the season of love, I concluded that the colours had been gained as a sexual attraction. I was well aware that I thus laid myself open to ridicule; though in fact it is not more surprising that a monkey should display his bright-red hinder end than that a peacock should display his magnificent tail. I had, however, at that time no evidence of monkeys exhibiting this part of their bodies during their courtship; and such display in the case of birds affords the best evidence that the ornaments of the males are of service to them by attracting or exciting the females.… Joh. von Fischer, of Gotha … finds that not only the mandrill but the drill and three other kinds of baboons, also
Cynopithecus niger
, and
Macacus rhesus
and
nemestrinus
, turn this part of their bodies, which in all these species is more or less brightly coloured, to him when they are pleased, and to other persons as a sort of greeting. He took pains to cure a
Macacus rhesus
, which he had kept for five years, of this indecorous habit, and at last succeeded. These monkeys are particularly apt to act in this manner, grinning at the same time, when first introduced to a new monkey, but often also to their old monkey friends; and after this mutual display they begin to play together …

“[T]he habit with adult animals is connected to a certain extent with sexual feelings, for Von Fischer watched through a glass door a female
Cynopithecus niger
, and she during several days, ‘turned and displayed her intensely reddened backside while making gurgling sounds—something I had never before observed in this animal. Seeing this, the male grew agitated; he vigorously rattled the bars of the cage, likewise emitting gurgling noises’ [this quotation
was cautiously rendered by Darwin in the original German and is translated here]. As all the monkeys which have the hinder parts of their bodies more or less brightly coloured live, according to Von Fischer, in open rocky places, he thinks that these colours serve to render one sex conspicuous at a distance to the other; but, as monkeys are such gregarious animals, I should have thought there was no need for the sexes to recognise each other at a distance. It seems to me more probable that the bright colours, whether on the face or hinder end, or, as in the mandrill, on both, serve as a sexual ornament and attraction.” (Charles Darwin, “Supplemental Note on Sexual Selection in Relation to Monkeys,”
Nature
, November 2, 1876, p. 18.)

7.
R. M. Yerkes and J. H. Elder, “Oestrus, Receptivity and Mating in the Chimpanzee,”
Comparative Psychology Monographs
13 (1936), pp. 1–39.

8.
Helen Fisher, “Monogamy, Adultery, and Divorce in Cross-Species Perspective,” in Michael H. Robinson and Lionel Tiger, editors,
Man and Beast Revisited
(Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), p. 98.

9.
de Waal,
Peacemaking among Primates
, p. 82.

10.
Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, “The Primate Origins of Human Sexuality,” in Robert Bellig and George Stevens, eds.,
Nobel Conference XXIII: The Evolution of Sex
(San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988), pp. 112 ff.

11.
Kelly J. Stewart and Alexander H. Harcourt, “Gorillas: Variation in Female Relationships,” Chapter 14 of Barbara B. Smuts, Dorothy L. Cheney, Robert M. Seyfarth, Richard W. Wrangham, and Thomas T. Struhsaker, editors,
Primate Societies
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), p. 163.

12.
Work of Nicholas Davies in the U.K., described by Stephen Emlen, private communication, 1991.

13.
Emily Martin, “The Egg and the Sperm: How Science Has Constructed a Romance Based on Stereotypical Male-Female Roles,”
Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 16
(1991), pp. 485–501.

14.
This is less true to the extent that the attributes of the sperm cells are determined by the
fathers
genes, and not the DNA instructions for making the next generation that the sperm cell itself is
carrying. Sperm competition will in any case be very important in those animals—primates prominent among them—where more than one male ejaculates in rapid succession into a given female.

15.
Goodall,
The Chimpanzees of Gombe
, p. 366.

16.
H[ippolyte] A. Taine,
History of English Literature
, translated by H. van Laun, second edition (Edinburgh: Edmonston and Douglas, 1872), Volume I, p. 340.

17.
Jacqueline Goodchilds and Gail Zellman, “Sexual Signaling and Sexual Aggression in Adolescent Relationships,” in
Pornography and Sexual Aggression
, Neil Malamuth and Edward Donnerstein, editors (New York: Academic Press, 1984).

18.
Neil Malamuth, “Rape Proclivity among Males,”
Journal of Social Issues
37 (1981), pp. 138–157; Malamuth, “Aggression against Women: Cultural and Individual Causes,” in Malamuth and Donnerstein, editors,
op. cit
.

19.
The most comprehensive national survey was sponsored by the National Victim Center and the Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center of the Medical University of South Carolina, with financial support from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. See David Johnston, “Survey Shows Number of Rapes Far Higher than Official Figures,”
New York Times
, April 24, 1992, p. A14.

20.
Bondage and rape are popular themes in pornography designed for male audiences in, e.g., Britain, France, Germany, South America, and Japan, as well as the United States. A recurrent subject of Japanese pornographic movies is the rape of a high school girl (Paul Abramson and Haruo Hayashi, “Pornography in Japan,” in Malamuth and Donnerstein, editors,
op. cit.
).

21.
Robert A. Prentky and Vernon L. Quinsey,
Human Sexual Aggression: Current Perspectives
, Volume 528 of the Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1988); Howard E. Barbaree and William L. Marshall, “The Role of Male Sexual Arousal in Rape: Six Models,”
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
59 (1991), pp. 621–630; Gene Abel, J. Rouleau, and J. Cunningham-Rather, “Sexually Aggressive Behavior,” in
Modern Legal Psychiatry and Psychology
, A. L. McGarry and S. A. Shah, editors (Philadelphia: Davis, 1985); Gene Abel, quoted in Faye Knopp,
Retraining Adult Sex
Offenders: Methods and Models
(Syracuse, NY: Safer Society Press, 1984), p. 9.

22.
E.g., Lee Ellis, “A Synthesized (Biosocial) Theory of Rape,”
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
59 (1991), pp. 631–642.

23.
E.g., Susan Brownmiller,
Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1975); Judith Lewis Herman, “Considering Sex Offenders: A Model of Addiction,”
Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society
13 (1988), pp. 695–724.

24.
Lee Ellis,
Theories of Rape
(New York: Hemisphere, 1989).

25.
Peggy Reeves Sanday, “The Socio-Cultural Context of Rape: A Cross-Cultural Study,”
Journal of Social Issues
37 (1981), pp. 5–27.

1.
(London and Edinburgh: Williams and Norgate, 1863), p. 105.

2.
Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, “Raising Darwin’s Consciousness: Females and Evolutionary Theory,” in Robert Bellig and George Stevens, editors,
Nobel Conference XXIII: The Evolution of Sex
(San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988), p. 161.

3.
John Paul Scott, “Agonistic Behavior of Primates: A Comparative Perspective,” in Ralph L. Holloway, editor,
Primate Aggression, Territoriality, and Xenophobia: A Comparative Perspective
(New York: Academic Press, 1974), especially p. 427; Shirley C. Strum,
Almost Human: A Journey into the World of Baboons
(New York-Random House, 1987).

4.
Dorothy L. Cheney, “Interactions and Relationships Between Groups,” Chapter 22 in Barbara B. Smuts, Dorothy L. Cheney, Robert M. Seyfarth, Richard W. Wrangham, and Thomas T. Struhsaker, editors,
Primate Societies
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), p. 281.

5.
Solly Zuckerman,
The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes
(New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1932), pp. 49, 50.

6.
Solly Zuckerman,
From Apes to Warlords
(New York: Harper & Row, 1978), p. 39.

7.
Ibid.
, p. 12.

8.
F. W. Fitzsimons,
The Natural History of South Africa
, Volume
1,
Mammals
(London: Longmans, Green, 1919), quoted in Zuckerman,
The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes
, p. 293.

9.
Zuckerman,
From Apes to Warlords
, pp. 220, 219, and footnote, p. 220.

10.
Zuckerman,
The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes
, pp. 228, 229.

11.
Ibid.
, p. 237.

12.
Scott,
op. cit.;
H. Kummer,
Social Origin of Hamadryas Baboons
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968).

13.
Zuckerman,
From Apes to Warlords
, p. 41.

14.
Ibid.
, p. 42.

15.
Zuckerman,
The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes
, p. 148.

16.
Hrdy,
op. cit
. (ref. 2), p. 163.

17.
Donna Robbins Leighton, “Gibbons: Territoriality and Monogamy,” Chapter 12 in Smuts
et al.
, eds.,
op. cit.
, pp. 135–145.

18.
Randall Susman, editor,
The Pygmy Chimpanzee: Evolutionary Biology and Behavior
(New York: Plenum, 1984).

19.
Frans de Waal,
Peacemaking among Primates
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), p. 181.

20.
Toshisada Nishida and Mariko Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, “Chimpanzees and Bonobos: Cooperative Relationships among Males,” Chapter 15 in Smuts et al.,
op. cit.
, p. 167.

21.
Charles Darwin,
The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex
(New York: The Modern Library, n.d.) (originally published in 1871) pp. 396, 397. Both Pliny and Aelian wrote about wine-imbibing apes who could be captured when drunk.

22.
Edward O. Wilson,
Sociobiology: The New Synthesis
(Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1975), p. 538.

23.
Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt,
The Biology of Peace and War. Men, Animals, and Aggression
, translated by Eric Mosbacher (New York: The Viking Press, 1979) (originally published in 1975 as
Krieg und Frieden
by R. Piper, München), p. 108.

24.
Paul D. MacLean, “Special Award Lecture: New Findings on Brain Function and Sociosexual Behavior,” Chapter 4 in Joseph Zubin and John Money, editors,
Contemporary Sexual Behavior. Critical Issues in the 1970s
(Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973), p. 65.

25.
Barbara B. Smuts, “Sexual Competition and Mate Choice,” Chapter 31 in Barbara B. Smuts, Dorothy L. Cheney, Robert M.
Seyfarth, Richard W. Wrangham, and Thomas T. Struhsaker, editors,
Primate Societies
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), p. 392.

26.
Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, “The Primate Origins of Human Sexuality,” in Robert Bellig and George Stevens, editors,
Nobel Conference XXIII: The Evolution of Sex
(San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988).

27.
Alison F. Richard, “Malagasy Prosimians: Female Dominance,” Chapter 3 in Smuts
et al
, eds.,
op
. cit., p. 32. Reference for quotation within passage: A. Jolly, “The Puzzle of Female Feeding Priority,” in M. Small, ed.,
Female Primates: Studies by Women Primatologists
(New York: Alan R. Liss, 1984), p. 198.

28.
Toshisada Nishida and Mariko Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, “Chimpanzees and Bonobos: Cooperative Relationships among Males,” Chapter 15 in Smuts
et al.
, eds.,
op. cit.
, p. 174.

29.
Mireille Bertrand, Bibliotheca Primatologica, Number 11,
The Behavioral Repertoire of the Stumptail Macaque: A Descriptive and Comparative Study
(Basel: S. Karger, 1969), p. 191.

30.
Frans de Waal,
Peacemaking among Primates
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), pp. 153, 154.

31.
Frank E. Poirier, “Colobine Aggression: A Review,” in Ralph L. Holloway, editor,
Primate Aggression, Territoriality, and Xenophobia: A Comparative Perspective
(New York and London: Academic Press, 1974), pp. 146–147, 130–131, 140–141.

32.
Sherwood L. Washburn, “The Evolution of Human Behavior,” in John D. Roslansky, editor,
The Uniqueness of Man
(Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1969), p. 170.

33.
Robert M. Seyfarth, “Vocal Communication and Its Relation to Language,” Chapter 36 in Smuts
et al.
, eds.,
op. cit.
, pp. 444, 450, 445.

34.
P. D. MacClean, “New Findings on Brain Function and Sociosexual Behavior,” in
Contemporary Sexual Behavior
, Zubin and Money, eds.,
op. cit
.

35.
Solly Zuckerman,
The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes
(New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1932), p. 259.

36.
Darwin,
op. cit.
, p. 449.

37.
Zuckerman,
op. cit.
, p. 474.

38.
Patricia L. Whitten, “Infants and Adult Males,” Chapter 28 in Smuts
et al.
, eds.,
op. cit.
, pp. 343, 344.