Soldier of Rome: The Last Campaign (The Artorian Chronicles) (47 page)

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Chapter Endnote:

1 – Lillebonne, France

Historical
Appendices

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The Britons

Caratacus
continued to be the face of resistance in Britannia. He succeeded in uniting the divided tribes, compelling them to continue to fight against the Roman occupiers and raiding those villages and tribal kingdoms that had become Romanized. Though initially successful in the use of guerilla warfare, the Roman retaliation of burning all rebel villages they encountered compelled Caratacus and his Silures allies to face them in battle. In 50 A.D., he rallied his allies from all over Britannia, to include the highly warlike tribes in Wales, and built a series of stone and wooden ramparts on high ground with which to defend against the Roman onslaught. Despite being dug in, with distinct terrain advantage afforded by the high ground as well as a protective river, and likely holding numerical superiority, Caratacus suffered a decisive defeat by the Romans under Ostorius Scapula at the Battle of Caer Caradoc. It was to be his last major stand against Rome.

The rebels were shattered, and Caratacus fled to Brigantes, perhaps to seek aid from Cartimandua’s then-husband, Venutius, who was by this time an outspoken opponent of the Roman occupation. Instead, Cartimandua herself ordered Caratacus arrested and handed over to the Romans in chains. In 51 A.D., he and his family were paraded through Rome, where traditionally the leaders of such rebellions were summarily executed by strangulation. Instead, he made the unusual request of being allowed to speak directly to the senate and emperor, which was granted. Tacitus gives the following version of his speech:

“If the degree of my nobility and fortune had been matched by moderation in success, I would have come to this City as a friend rather than a captive, nor would you have disdained to receive with a treaty of peace one sprung from brilliant ancestors and commanding a great many nations. But my present lot, disfiguring as it is for me, is magnificent for you. I had horses, men, arms, and wealth: what wonder if I was unwilling to lose them? If you wish to command everyone, does it really follow that everyone should accept your slavery? If I were now being handed over as one who had surrendered immediately, neither my fortune nor your glory would have achieved brilliance. It is also true that in my case any reprisal will be followed by oblivion. On the other hand, if you preserve me safe and sound, I shall be an eternal example of your clemency.”

The senate, as well as Emperor Claudius, were so moved by his words that he received a standing ovation. Viewing him as a worthy adversary, and knowing that to show clemency was to show strength, Caratacus was pardoned. Though never allowed to return to Britannia, or to even leave Rome, he was allowed to live out the remainder of his days with his family in peace. He was further so awestruck by the grandeur of Rome that Cassius Dio quotes him as saying to Claudius,
“And can you, then, who have got such possessions and so many of them, covet our poor tents?”

Cartimandua
remained a loyal Roman ally, despite the vehement protestations of her husband and numerous warriors of the Brigantes nobility. She later divorced Venutius and married his armorer, Vellocatus. Her kingdom split into a civil war in the 50s A.D., with rebels under her former husband seeking her overthrow. She petitioned the Roman governor, Scapula, for aid, who responded by crushing the rebels and asserting Cartimandua’s rule over her people. She continued to show her loyalty to Rome during the crisis brought on by the rebellion of Queen Boudicca of the Iceni in 61 A.D.

In 69 A.D., with Rome embroiled in civil war in what would be known as
‘The Year of the Four Emperors’
, Venutius raised another rebellion against his former wife. Though Cartimandua was evacuated by Roman soldiers, insufficient troops were available to save her kingdom. Venutius became king of the Brigantes, and Cartimandua disappears from the historical texts. The ultimate fate of both remains unknown.

Cogidubnus
built up the Atrebates and surrounding areas as part of the
civitas
or states / magistracies of the Roman Empire. He later became a Roman citizen, sometime during either the later reign of Claudius or possibly Nero, adopting the name Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus. Such amalgamations of indigenous and Roman names were common when a member of foreign nobility was awarded citizenship. An extensive
Romanization
of his kingdom took place during his reign, with the public baths, forum, and amphitheater near Silchester, England being built. A magnificent palace was erected for him near what is now Chichester and Fishbourne in southern England around 65 to 70 A.D. The size of the complex and level of detail, particularly the ornate floor mosaics that are remarkably still intact, denotes the status he enjoyed as both a Britannic king and Roman citizen. Several marble slabs excavated in recent years bear tributes to him in Latin, referring to him as
‘Great King of the Britons’
. His exact date of death is unknown, although Tacitus states that he remained a loyal client king until late in the 1
st
century, suggesting that his rule lasted a span of between thirty-five and fifty years.

The Romans

Claudius
returned to Rome, celebrating his triumph in 44 A.D., where the senate awarded him the agnomen,
Britannicus
. Though the Triumph was perhaps a bit premature, given the volatility of the isle, he had acquired Rome a new province and secured his military credentials. His reign proved to be highly successful, aided by his treating members of the senate as equals, rather than subjects. He embarked on a series of public works, in particular focusing on transportation infrastructure by expanding the empire’s network of roads and canals. Besides Britannia, Claudius further expanded the empire by annexing Thrace, Noricum, Pamphylia, Lycia, and Judea. While Judea had been granted nominal autonomy under the rule of Herod Agrippa, who was a close personal friend of Claudius, upon his death in 44 A.D. the province reverted back to Roman control.

As successful as his public life was as emperor, Claudius’ personal life was an unmitigated disaster. His third wife, Empress Valeria Messalina, attempted to have him overthrown in 48 A.D. and replaced by a lover. The plot was uncovered and Messalina executed soon after. In January, 49 A.D., he married for the fourth time, this time to his own niece, Agrippina the Younger. He died in 54 A.D., with most ancient historians agreeing that he was murdered, possibly by Agrippina. Though he had named both his stepson, Nero, as well as his own son, Britannicus, as his joint heirs, the despondent Nero soon had Britannicus killed and became one of Rome’s most controversial and hated emperors. Both of Claudius’ daughters, Claudia Antonia and Claudia Octavia, perished during Nero’s reign. The Julio-Claudian Dynasty came to an ignominious end in 68 A.D. with Nero’s suicide; ushering in a period of civil war.

Aulus Plautius
remained in Britannia, where he was named the first Roman governor of the province. He served a standard four-year term from 43 to 47 A.D., after which he returned to Rome and was given a public
Ovation
by Emperor Claudius. Little is known about the remainder of his life.

Ostorius Scapula
served as suffect Consul in 46 A.D., the following year succeeding Plautius as Governor of Britannia. Rebellious and unconquered tribes continued to resist, testing the new governor’s mettle. He made a strategic error by ordering all tribes within the province to disarm, which provoked rebellion amongst the Iceni and others. These were quickly put down, though as a result, Scapula recanted his directive for disarmament. His decisive victory over Caratacus at Caer Caradoc in 50 A.D. proved to be his crowning achievement. He died unexpectedly a year later; in the words of Tacitus, “worn out with care”.

Flavius Sabinus
continued to serve as a legate under Plautius until 45 A.D. He then served seven years as governor of Moesia, in what is now the Balkans. When Rome fell into civil war during
The Year of the Four Emperors
, Sabinus supported his younger brother, Vespasian’s bid for the throne. After the armies of the third emperor, Vitellius, were defeated by Vespasian’s forces, he tried to surrender the empire to Sabinus, who would act as regent until his brother arrived. Vitellius’ German guards and surviving forces refused to honor the surrender, and instead laid siege to Rome. Sabinus was killed, despite Vitellius’ protestations. Upon Vespasian’s triumphant arrival in Rome, his remains were interred with dignity and he was given a censor’s funeral.

Vespasian
returned from Britannia as one of Rome’s most celebrated generals. His numerous victories earned him
triumphal regalia
, and he was regarded as the greatest military leader of the age. He was made Consul in 51 A.D., after which he retired from public life, possibly due to having fallen out with Claudius’ fourth wife, Agrippina. In 63 A.D., during the reign of Nero, he was appointed Governor of North Africa. Rumors from the time say he fell out of favor once more after falling asleep during one of the emperor’s infamous musical or poetic recitals. Whether truth or embellishment, Vespasian was forced into retirement once more.

In 66 A.D. the province of Judea exploded in open rebellion, during which the Syrian legate was killed while attempting to restore order. Vespasian was immediately recalled to active service once again and dispatched with a huge army to destroy the rebels. His son, Titus, who was already an accomplished military leader in his own right, commanded one of his legions.

Two years later, while Vespasian was still in Judea, Nero committed suicide in the face of rebellion in Rome. And while Vespasian swore his allegiance to the new emperor, Galba, upon his murder, Rome fell into civil war. During the chaos, Vespasian was proclaimed emperor and his armies emerged victorious. He returned to Rome, quickly restoring order and leaving the completing of the Jewish War to Titus, who succeeded in capturing and sacking Jerusalem in 70 A.D.

Vespasian’s ten-year reign was highly successful, and he is universally regarded as one of the greatest men to become Emperor of Rome. He had Claudius deified, rebuilt Rome following the civil war, and quickly established himself as both a strong and benevolent ruler. His vast military credentials gave him an aura of strength, and he expanded the Empire further into northern Britannia. He ordered numerous public works, the most famous of which was the
Flavian Amphitheatre
, now known as
The Colosseum
. He died of a fever on 23 June 79 A.D. at the age of sixty-nine. His last words were purported to be ‘
Vae, puto deus fio’
, “Oh, I think I’m becoming a god!”

Consummatum Est – It is Finished

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