5 . Vittore Querel,Il paese di Benito: Cronache di Predappio e dintorni (Roma: Corso, 1954), p. 22. Querel was the editor in chief of theGazzetta dell'Emilia during the Republic of Salò.
6 . Ferrante Azzali, “Il neo Sherlock Holmes scopre i tesori di Mussolini,”Il Tempo , December 20â27, 1947, p. 21.
7 . Alfredo Panicucci, “Celebrano la Messa sulla tomba di Mussolini,”Epoca , November 7, 1954, p. 30.
8 . Roberto De Monticelli, “Tutto è pronto a Predappio,”Epoca , April 26, 1952, p. 16.
9 . Renata Viganò,L'Agnese va a morire (Turin: Einaudi, 1954), p. 328.
10 . Beppe Fenoglio,Appunti partigiani, 1944â1945 (Turin: Einaudi, 1994), p. 39.
11 . Cesare Pavese,The House on the Hill , inThe Selected Works of Cesare Pavese (New York: New York Review Books, 2001), p. 26.
12 . Riccardo Bauer, “Lasciamo dimenticare,”Il Ponte , AprilâMay 1955, pp. 762â63.
13 . The song is “Raffaele,” words by Dario Baraldi, music by Fausto Amodei.
14 . Salvatore Quasimodo,Complete Poems (New York: Schocken, 1983), p. 32.
15 . Gaetano Salvemini, “Terrorismo e attentati individuali,”Controcorrente , March 1947, p. 11.
16 . Gaetano Salvemini, “Le voci del cuore,”Belfagor , 1946, p. 744.
17 . Emilio Lussu,La catena (1930; rpt. Milan: Baldini e Castoldi, 1997), p. 17.
18 . Giovanni Ansaldo, “âCoi piedi per aria': Lettera al professor Salvemini,”Il Borghese , December 31, 1954, p. 875.
20 . R. C. [Giovanni Ansaldo],L'Illustrazione italiana , September 19, 1948, p. 377.
21 . Giovanni Ansaldo, “âCoi piedi per aria,'” p. 875.
22 . Domenico Leccisi, “Apparve la sua testa,”Il Tempo , July 24â31, 1948, p. 9.
23 . Domenico Leccisi, “Ci sorprese l'alba,”Il Tempo , July 31âAugust 7, 1948, p. 10.
24 . Massimo Mila, “Antifascisti, si ricomincia!” (1948),Scritti civili (Turin: Einaudi, 1995), p. 274.
25 . Vitaliano Brancati, “Uomini-tombe: Soggetti poetici,”Il Tempo , March 1â8, 1947, p. 5.
26 . Domenico Leccisi, “Dalle tenebre alla luce: Difendiamoci,”Lotta d'Italia , September 16, 1950, p. 1.
27 . Piero Malvezzi and Giovanni Pirelli, eds.,Lettere di condannati a morte della Resistenza italiana (8 settembre 1943â25 aprile 1945) (1952; rpt. Turin: Einaudi, 1975), p. 110.
28 .Il Ponte , June 1953, p. 729.
29 . Unsigned, in the column “Bollettino della libertà della cultura, delle informazioni e delle opinioni,”Il Ponte , November 1953, p. 1607.
30 . Undated press release of the Autonomous Italian Social Movement, the name first assumed by the splinter group to which Leccisi belonged after leaving the Italian Social Movement (Domenico Leccisi Archive, Milan).
31 . Emil Ludwig,Colloqui con Mussolini (1932; rpt. Milan: Mondadori, 1950), p. 225.
32 . Giuseppe Bottai,Diario, 1944â1948 (Milan: Rizzoli, 1988), pp. 396, 177.
33 . Vincenzo Costa,L'ultimo federale: Memorie della guerra civile, 1943â1945 (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1997), p. 282.
34 . Gaetano Salvemini, “Ludwig e Mussolini” (1953),Scritti vari (1900â1957) (Milan: Feltrinelli, 1978), p. 281.
35 . Renzo Segre,Venti mesi (Palermo: Sellerio, 1995), p. 116.
36 . Gian Dauli [Ugo G. Nalato],Mussolini, l'uomo, l'avventuriero, il criminale (Milan: Lucchi, 1946).
37 . Cesare Rossi,Mussolini com'era: Radioscopia dell'ex-dittatore (Rome: Ruffolo, 1947), p. 209.
38 . Ennio Flaiano,Diario notturno (1956),Opere, 1947â1972 (Milan: Bompiani, 1990), p. 445.
39 . “Guardò per l'ultima volta l'obiettivo,”Il Tempo , September 6â13, 1947, p. 3.
40 . Yvon De Begnac,Palazzo Venezia: Storia di un regime (Rome: La Rocca, 1950), p. 26.
41 . Manlio Lupinacci, “Siamo tutti traditori,”Epoca , November 29, 1953, p. 49.
42 . Manlio Lupinacci, “Hanno tutti un 8 settembre,”Epoca , September 13, 1953, p. 47.
43 . Paolo Monelli,Mussolini piccolo borghese (1950; rpt. Milan: Garzanti, 1983), p. 142.
44 . From a letter (certainly apocryphal) quoted in “Camicia nera âa fiori': Estrema divisa,”Settimana Incom , November 19, 1949, p. 20.
45 . Anita Pensotti,Rachele e Benito: Biografia di Rachele Mussolini (Milan: Mondadori, 1993), p. 116.
46 . Rachele Mussolini,La mia vita con Benito (Milan: Mondadori, 1948), p. 267.
47 . Rosetta Ricci Crisolini, “âVidi piangere le innamorate di Benito': Le memorie di Edvige Mussolini,”Epoca , March 14, 1953, p. 46.
Chapter Seven: The Return of the Remains
1 . “Errante per l'Italia,”Il Mondo , January 18, 1955, p. 2.
2 .I programmi dei governi repubblicani dal 1946 al 1978 (Rome: Centro Romano Editoriale, 1978), p. 160.
3 . Parliamentary Acts, Second Legislature, Chamber of Deputies,Discussione , June 7, 1957.
4 . “I fascisti dopo il voto beffeggiano i ministri che cercano scusanti per non dimettersi,”l'Unità , June 8, 1957.
5 .Il Mondo , July 2, 1957, p. 16.
6 . The letter, dated Naples, March 30, 1956, is in the archives of Palazzo Chigi, Prime Minister's Office, 1955, folder 1â7 14274, subfolder 5â2, “Benito Mussolini e famiglia. Resti del corpo: Richieste varie.”
7 . Salvatore Satta,De profundis (Milan: Adelfi, 1980), p. 16. Written in 1944â45, the book was published in 1948.
8 . Ulisse [Davide Lajolo], “La promessa di Zoli,”l'Unità , August 31, 1957.
9 . Letter, signed Benito Crisafulli, August 30, 1957, in the archives of Palazzo Chigi, Prime Minister's Office, 1955, folder 1â7 14274, subfolder 5â2, “Benito Mussolini e famiglia. Resti del corpo: Richieste varie.”
10 . Ibid., letter sent September 10, 1957.
11 . [Enzo Forcella], “Passione cadaverica,”Il Mondo , September 10, 1957, p. 2.
12 . State Archives, Milan, Cabinet of the Interior Ministry 1957â60, envelope 42, folder 11220, “Mussolini, famiglia-carteggio-salma,” subfolder 11220/3, “Mussolini salma.” Note from the minister written on a telegram dated September 8, 1957, from the Forlì prefect.
13 . Ibid., from a letter signed by Primo Giunchi, dated Forlì, October 2, 1957.
14 . Ibid., from a telegram to Interior Minister Tambroni, dated Forlì, September 27, 1957.
15 . Ibid., telegram dated Forlì, September 29, 1957.
16 . State Archives, Milan, Cabinet of the Interior Ministry 1957â60, envelope 42, folder 11220, “Mussolini, famiglia-carteggio-salma,” subfolder 11220/3, “Mussolini salma,” from a communication marked “Riservatissima,” dated Forlì, September 30, 1957.
17 . Ibid., prefect's announcement, dated Terni, September 13, 1957.
18 . Ibid., prefect's announcement, dated Verona, September 24, 1957.
19 . Ibid., letter from the provincial executive committee of the National Association of Partisans, dated Parma, September 27, 1957.
20 . Screenplay ofLa Dolce Vita , written by Federico Fellini, Ennio Flaiano, and Tullio Pinelli.
21 . Quoted in Guido Crainz,Storia del miracolo italiano: Culture, identità ,trasformazioni fra anni cinquanta e sessanta (Rome: Donzelli, 1996), p. 151.
23 . “Per i morti di Reggio Emilia,” sung by the Cantacronache. See Paolo Jachia,La canzone d'autore italiana, 1958â1997: Avventure della parola cantata (Milan: Feltrinelli, 1998), pp. 33â35.
Epilogue
1 . “Open letter” from Enrico Sturani to his grandfather Augusto Monti,Belfagor , 1963, cited in Guido Crainz, “La âlegittimazione' della Resistenza: Dalla crisi del centrismo alla vigilia del '68,”Problemi del Socialismo 7 (1986): 86.
2 . Mirko Dondi, “Piazzale Loreto,”I luoghi della memoria: Miti e simboli dell'Italia unita, ed. Mario Isnenghi (Rome-Bari: Laterza, 1996), p. 491.
3 . Italo Calvino, “I ritratti del Duce” (1983),Saggi 1945â1985 , vol. 1 (Milan: Mondadori, 1995), p. 2891.
4 . Luigi Meneghello,Bau-sète! (1988; rpt. Milan: Bompiani, 1996), p. 39.
6 . Norma Rangieri, “Combat film, rapsodia in nero,”Il Manifesto , April 7, 1994.
7 . Franco Ferraresi, “La storia âsfregiata' per sensazionalismo”Corriere della Sera, April 9, 1994.
8 . Barbara Spinelli, “La TV e l'Italia malata,”La Stampa , April 8, 1994.
9 . Interview with Stefano Levi della Torre, “Quando avanza la zona grigia,”Il Manifesto , April 13, 1994.
10 . Guido Ceronetti, “Lo spettro funest,”La Stampa , April 7, 1994.
11 . Giorgio Bocca, “I due falsi storici del 25 aprile,”La Repubblica , April 14, 1994.
12 . Eugenio Scalfari, “Aria di Mussolini,”Il Venerdì (weekly magazine ofLa Repubblica ), February 27, 1998, pp. 33â34.
13 . Domenico Leccisi, “Ai lettori,”Alternative: Agenzia di informazione per la stampa , March 1995, p. 4.
14 . From the guest book, crypt at San Casciano, January 1997.
Acknowledgments
Many people helped me during the years of research. My first thanks go to Ugo Berti Arnoaldi, whose generous advice was matched by his profound knowledge of the routes that link Italian history and memory during the twentieth century. I am equally indebted to Domenico Leccisi, one of the principal actors in Mussolini's afterlife, who shared with me his archives and his store of memories. I am all the more grateful for his willingness to help given the great gulf in our political beliefs.
The children of two other prominent figures in this story offered help and information about their fathers; my thanks, therefore, to Giovan Battista Ansaldo and Roberta De Monticelli. Journalist Mario Proli supplied background on modern-day Predappio; it gives me pleasure to thank him and his mother, Rosanna Proli, who showed me around the relevant Mussolini sites. On the day I visited I was accompainied by Michele Bella, a photographer, who produced the images from Predappio and helped me choose material from the Publifoto archives. My thanks also go to those who made the American edition of this book possible. In the first place to Frederika Randall, who brought to the translation not only her literary talent but also a thorough knowledge of Italian society and culture, past and present. And to the staff of Metropolitan Books, in particular to Sara Bershtel, who believed in this project with contagious enthusiasm, and to Riva Hocherman, who edited the book with the greatest of skill and patience.
When I first set out to track the odyssey of Il Duce's body, I was encouraged by the best historian in the field, Mario Isnenghi, whom I thank for our initial conversations and for his comments on the Italian edition. Antonio Gibelli not only offered a critical reading of the text but an ongoing dialogue about the book's concerns. To Paolo Viola, finally, I owe more than thanks. I owe to him my methods and my motives for the study of history.
Index
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