The Cold War: A MILITARY History (78 page)

1
This is based on information contained in the Federal German government document
Militärische Planungen des Warschauer Paktes in Zentraleurope – Eine Studie (Warsaw Pact Military Plans in Central Europe: A Study)
, issued by the Federal Ministry of Defence Press Office, Bonn, Germany, in February 1992.

1
D. Ball,
Targeting for Strategic Defence
(International Institute for Strategic Studies, London, Adelphi Paper No. 185, summer 1983), p. 5.

2
Cochrane et al.,
Nuclear Weapons Databook, Volume I
, p. 6.

3
Cave Brown (ed.),
Operation World War III
, p. 24.

4
Ball,
Targeting for Strategic Defence
, p. 8.

5
Ibid., p. 9.

6
Glasstone and Dolan,
The Effects of Nuclear Weapons
.

7
The JIGSAW reports are in PRO/DEFE 11/436.

8
‘The Consequences of “Limited” Nuclear Attacks on the United States’,
International Security
, vol. 10, no. 4 (spring 1986), pp. 3–45.

9
Levi et al., ‘Civilian Casualties from “Limited” Nuclear Attacks on the USSR’, pp. 168–89.

1
Herman Kahn,
On Escalation
(Pall Mall Press, London, 1965 (reprint of earlier US edn)), pp. 95, 97.

2
Nuclear Planning Group, Final Communiqué, Taormina, Italy, 17–18 October 1991, paragraph 6.

3
Hackett et al.,
The Third World War
.

4
President Jimmy Carter in a letter to Senator John C. Stennis dated 11 July 1977; quoted in van Cleave and Cohen,
Tactical Nuclear Weapons
, p. 8.

5
Sun Tzu,
The Art of War
, p. 76.

A-4 rocket (German V-2), 82–4, 91, 96, 98, 102, 108, 110–11, 115, 351

Acheson, Dean, 19, 21

Afghanistan: invaded by USSR, 29, 256; Soviet withdrawal from, 31; Soviet helicopters in, 314

air forces: NATO, 295–301; command and control, 296–7; Warsaw Pact, 312–16;
see also
bomber aircraft; fighter and attack aircraft; Strategic Air Command

air reconnaissances, 338–9

air warning and control system (AWACS), 116, 296, 300, 355

air-defence missiles and guns, 286–91

air-to-air refuelling, 134

airborne troops: NATO, 241–2; Soviet, 254–6

airbursts (nuclear), 72–3

aircraft carriers, 163, 166, 168, 172, 180, 196–205; warfare against, 206–7

Albacore
(US submarine), 185

Albania: as Soviet satellite, 4; Communist government, 6, 64; refuses to attend CSCE talks, 28; and Warsaw Pact, 54, 64–5, 400; breach with USSR, 65, 400; relations with China, 65, 182; Soviet naval base in, 65, 170, 181; navy, 181–2

Algeria: French generals mutiny in, 37

Allied Control Council, 3

Allied Tactical Air Forces (ATAFs; NATO), 295, 297

ammunition: and logistics, 247

amphibious warfare, 223–7

Angola, 174

Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty (1972), 28

Antonescu, General Ion, 65

Antwerp: World War II missile attacks on, 82, 83

Arab–Israeli Wars: (1967), 178; (1973), 29, 319–20; tanks in, 258

Argentina: aircraft carrier, 205; in Falklands War, 214–15

armoured personnel carriers (APCs), 275–80

artillery: field, 282–6; fire-direction, 285–6; in air defence, 286–91; targets and range, 291; nuclear, 349, 350–1; NATO, 437; Warsaw Pact, 437

Assured Destruction concept, 365

Atlantic: and NATO naval command, 49, 51; and naval power, 163

Atlantic Alliance
see
North Atlantic Treaty Organization

Atlas missile, 97, 103–4, 106, 364

attack aircraft
see
fighter and attack aircraft

Attlee, Clement, 17, 48

Australia: aircraft carrier, 205; armoured personnel carrier, 277

Austria: peace treaty (1955), 26

AWACS
see
air warning and control system

ballistic missiles: development, 83–4; warheads, 91–4; accuracy, 93; defences, 103; stand-off, 129–31; availability, 156–7; reliability, 157–8;
see also
intercontinental ballistic missiles; intermediate-range ballistic missiles

Baltic Sea: NATO defence of, 167, 169; Soviet fleet in, 177–80, 182; in Warsaw Pact attack plans, 359

Baltic states: independence (1990–1), 67

Barents Sea, 198

battleships and battlecruisers, 217–18, 225

Belarus: independence (1991), 67

Belgium: in Benelux, 10–11; in Brussels Treaty, 11; navy, 167; army, 232; airborne troops, 242–3; mobilization, 244; logistical problems, 246; and refugee problem, 246; deployment of forces, 248; armoured infantry fighting vehicles, 277; air force and aircraft, 298–9, 308–9

Benelux (Belgium–Netherlands–Luxembourg group): formed, 10–11

Beneš, Edward, 6–7

Berlin: occupied and divided, 9, 328–9; Soviet blockade and Allied airlift (1948), 9, 332, 338; 1971 agreement (‘Berlin Accord’), 28, 344; demonstrations and opening of Wall (1989), 31, 67, 345; French occupation zone, 33, 35, 329, 332, 346–7; uprisings (Eastern), 57, 67, 336, 340; responsibilities for defence, 323, 358; status and administration, 328–31, 344, 346–7; access, 329–30, 341; Air Safety Centre (BASC), 329; military strengths and organization (Western), 333–5, 339; contingency plans, 336–7; Wall built (1961), 337, 342; land reconnaissances (‘probes’), 338–9; incidents and confrontations, 339–44, 347; reunification, 345–6; life and conditions in (1945–89), 346–8

Bessarabia, 9

Bevin, Ernest, 16–18, 21

Bikini Atoll, 72

Black Sea: naval forces in, 169–70, 178, 181

blast (nuclear), 73–4

bomber aircraft: types and performance, 124–30; defence and countermeasures against, 130–3; deployment, 133; targets, 133–4, 139; air tankers, 134, 415; strategic, 413–17

Bornholm (Baltic island), 13, 359

Brandt, Willy, 28

Braun, Werner von, 96, 351

Brazil: aircraft carrier, 205

Bremerhaven, 231

Brezhnev, Leonid: visits Berlin and Washington, 29; ‘Socialist Commonwealth’ doctrine, 59; and Polish crisis, 64; and submarine missile systems, 120; and strategic bombers, 129

Brunssum, 35, 51, 238, 296–7

Brussels: NATO HQ in, 27n, 52

Brussels Treaty
see
Western Union

Budapest, 58–9

Bukovina, 9

Bulganin, Nikolai, 62

Bulgaria: as Soviet satellite, 4; Communist government, 6; in Warsaw Pact, 54; navy, 181–2; airborne troops, 256

Bush, George, 384

Canada: and founding of NATO, 17–18; navy, 167; submarine programme, 189; aircraft carrier, 205; army, 232; airborne troops, 242; air force and aircraft, 298, 306, 308, 311; financial difficulties, 380

Carter, Jimmy, 84, 127, 366, 385–6

casualties: from nuclear attacks, 373–5, 442n

Ceau
ş
escu, Nikolae, 66–7, 181, 183

Central Group of Forces (Soviet; CGF), 253

Challenger
(UK ship), 123

Chernenko, Konstantin, 43

Chevaline submarine missile system, 141

China, People’s Republic of (PRC): Communist supremacy in, 9, 47; nuclear weapons, 27, 144–8; relations with Albania, 65, 182; nuclear testing, 80–1, 145, 405; as nuclear-target reserve, 91; bombers, 145; land-based missiles, 145–8, 421; submarines, 147, 157, 418; targeting strategy, 147–8; supplies naval ships to Romania, 183; in Korean War, 257; in US nuclear strategy, 366

Churchill, Sir Winston S.: on ‘iron curtain’, 4, 231; on post-war bewilderment, 5; and naval command, 48

civil defence: cost and effectiveness, 149–50, 154; in USA, 149, 151; in USSR, 149–51; in UK, 152–3

civilian population: reaction to attacks, 81–2; casualties, 373–5, 442n;
see also
civil defence

Clay, General Lucius, 336

Closely Based Spacing (or ‘Dense Pack’), 107

Communist parties: in eastern Europe, 4, 6–8; in western Europe, 8–9; in Asia, 9–10, 47

Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE; Helsinki, 1972), 28, 30, 42

Conqueror
(UK submarine), 188

conscription, 232

Conventional Armed Forces in Europe talks (CFE; Vienna, 1989), 31

counter-military potential (CMP), 156, 160

cruise missiles, 30, 42–4, 84n, 95 & n, 111, 113, 131, 191, 198

Cuba: Missile Crisis (1962), 27, 40, 65–6, 176; as Soviet ally, 174

Cyprus: Turkey invades, 37

Czechoslovakia: as Soviet satellite, 4, 7; Communist government in, 6–7, 11, 17, 59; ethnic Germans in, 6; invaded by Warsaw Pact forces (1968), 28, 38–40, 59–61, 253, 322, 325; and East Germans’ escapes to West, 31, 345; in Warsaw Pact, 55; armaments, 56; Soviet troops withdraw from (1990), 67; military forces, 253; airborne troops, 256; armoured personnel carriers, 279; artillery, 284, 437; aircraft industry, 313n; air force in, 315; in Warsaw Pact attack plans, 361–2

Denmark: and Nordic pact, 13–15; membership of NATO, 19, 22; relations with Iceland, 20; opposes missile deployment, 42; sea supplies to, 163; navy, 167; army, 232–3; in NATO defence strategy, 238; air force and aircraft, 298, 308

deterrence strategy, 84–6, 366–7, 387

DF weapons (China), 146–8

Dien Bien Phu, 34, 282

Dimitrov, Georgi, 6

Doolittle, Lieutenant-Colonel James, 199n

Douglas, William Sholto, 1st Baron, 338

Dreadnought
(UK submarine), 188

Dresden: bombed (1945), 74, 372–4

Dub
č
ek, Alexander, 59

Dulles, John Foster, 355

Dunkirk Treaty (1947), 10–11, 21

East Berlin
see
Berlin

East Germany (German Democratic Republic): admitted to UN, 29; recognized by West, 29; escapees to West, 31, 341–2, 345; in Warsaw Pact, 55; troops in 1968 Czechoslovak invasion, 60–1; and 1980 Polish crisis, 64; navy, 181–2; amphibious capability, 227; Soviet forces in, 250–2; military forces, 253; airborne troops, 256; air force and aircraft, 312n, 316; set up, 330; Soviet attitude to, 333; unrest in, 336; and status of West Berlin, 340; US food aid to, 340; 1989 demonstrations, 345; responsibility for taking Berlin, 348,
358
; in Warsaw Pact attack plans, 358, 361–2;
see also
Germany

Easton, Admiral Sir Ian, 140

Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, 89

Egypt: 1973 attack on Israel, 28, 319–20; as Soviet ally, 174;
see also
Suez crisis

Eilat
(Israeli destroyer), 178

Eisenhower, Dwight D.: and ‘tripwire’ strategy, 27n; and US spy plane (1960), 27; as Supreme Allied Commander, 47; offers food aid to East Germany, 340; accepts Berlin air-ceiling limit, 341; and battlefield nuclear weapons, 355

electromagnetic pulse (EMP), 76–7,105

electronic countermeasures (ECM), 130

electronics: effects of nuclear explosions on, 72, 76–7

Emergency Rocket Communications System (ERCS), 98

enhanced-radiation warhead, 75, 77, 350, 385–6

equivalent megatonnage (EMT; nuclear weapons), 155–6

Estonia: independence (1991), 67
Ethan Allen
(US submarine), 158

Europe: post-war division and disorder, 3–5; peace settlement (1946–7), 9; NATO Central Region ground forces in, 231–2; NATO defensive strategy and forces in, 237–49, 375–6; deployment of Warsaw Pact forces in, 250–6; Warsaw Pact attack threat in, 358–62, 375–6

European Advisory Commission (EAC), 328–9

European Defence Community: formed, 26

Falklands War (1982), 172, 204, 210, 214

fallout
see
residual nuclear radiation Federal Republic of Germany
see
West Germany

fighter and attack aircraft: NATO, 302–11; international co-operation on, 308–11;
see also
air forces

Finland: post-war settlement, 9; under Soviet domination, 14, 17

firestorms, 74, 373

flash (nuclear), 73

‘flexible response’ strategy, 237, 365

Follow-On Forces Attack, 30

Fontainebleau (France), 12–13, 47, 335

Ford, Gerald, 120

Forrestal
(US carrier), 197–8

Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (FOBS), 89, 100

France: Communist Party in, 8; war in Indo-China, 9, 34, 168; signs Dunkirk Treaty, 10–11, 21; in Brussels Treaty, 11, 21; membership of NATO, 21; opposes European Defence Community, 26; in Suez War (1956), 26, 34, 37, 58, 223; withdraws from NATO integrated military command structure, 27, 33–6, 50, 168, 236; Berlin occupation zone, 33, 35, 329, 332, 346–7; nuclear programme and weapons, 33–4, 36, 141–4, 405, 419–20; post-war weakness, 33–4; air force and aircraft, 34, 300–1, 307–9; NATO bases moved from, 34–5, 50; First French Army, 36–7; and NATO telecommunications system, 52n; nuclear testing, 80–1, 405; wartime experience, 86; as nuclear-target reserve, 91; bomber aircraft, 141–2; land-based missiles, 141–2; submarines, 142–3, 157, 189, 194, 418; targeting strategy, 144; navy, 168–9; aircraft carrier, 205, 215; surface warships, 215–17; battleships, 217; and central-European strategy, 231; army in Europe, 236–7; airborne troops, 242; battle tanks, 265, 270, 435; armoured personnel carriers, 280; field artillery, 283, 437; air-defence missiles, 287; battlefield nuclear weapons, 349, 354, 357; and Warsaw Pact attack plans, 362; equipment, 381; contingency strike plan, 386

Franco, General Francisco, 81n

Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, 326

Fylingdales, Yorkshire, England, 152

Gaulle, Charles De: opposes Marshall Plan and NATO, 8; post-war position, 33; and NATO, 34, 50; return to power (1958), 34, 168; on nuclear deterrence, 144; and French navy, 168

Gda
ń
sk, 62–3

General Belgrano
(Argentine cruiser), 188

Germany: 1945 defeat, 3; reparations, 3; refugees, 5–7; reunification (1990), 67; World War II missiles, 83, 406; recovery from wars, 86; submarines (U-boats), 110, 164, 169, 184, 190, 192–4; and outbreak of 1914 war, 326–7; bombed in World War II, 378;
see also
East Germany; West Germany

Gero, Erno, 58

Gheorghiu-Dej, Gheorghe, 8, 65

Gierek, Edward, 62–3

Giuseppe Garibaldi
(Italian cruiser), 116, 170

Glasstone, S., and P. J. Dolan:
The Effects of Nuclear Weapons
, 367

Gomu
ł
ka, W
ł
adys
ł
aw, 58, 62

Gorbachev, Mikhail: as Soviet leader, 30, 43; and collapse of Warsaw Pact, 67; and East German freedom, 345; and Warsaw Pact defence plans, 359; announces destruction of nuclear weapons, 384

Gorshkov, Admiral Sergei Georgiyevich, 176 & n, 204

Gottwald, Klement, 7

Great War (1914–18)
see
World War I

Greece: post-war government in, 9; USA supports, 16; membership of NATO, 22, 25, 49; hostility to Turkey, 26, 37; 1967 coup, 37; navy, 169; submarines, 191, 195; airborne troops, 242; aircraft, 308; battlefield nuclear weapons in, 350

Green, Hughie, 343

Greenland, 19, 22

Group of Soviet Forces Germany (GSFG;
renamed
Western Group of Forces), 250–2

Guernica, Spain, 81 & n

Gulf War, 247, 289n

guns
see
artillery

Gunston, Bill, 135

H-bombs: miniaturized, 87

Hackett General Sir John (and others):
The Third World War
, 89n, 385

Hamburg: firestorm, 74

Harmel Report (1967), 27–8

Healey, Denis, 257n

Hegel, G. W. F., 88n

Heidelberg, Germany, 240

Heihachiro, Admiral Togo, 175n

Heinemann, Dr Gustav, 344

Helsinki
see
Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe

Hiroshima, 72, 75, 80–1, 124, 136, 363, 373–4

Honecker, Erich, 64, 345

Hornet
(US carrier), 199n

Hoxha, Enver, 6, 64–5