The Coming Plague (123 page)
Authors: Laurie Garrett
67
Working in the lab with Montagnier were Françoise Barré-Sinoussi, Jean-Claude Chermann, David Klatzmann, Jean-Claude Gluckman, Marc Alizon, Simon Wain-Hobson, Pierre Sonige, and Christine Rouzioux.
68
The history of the discovery of the human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV-1, is mired in extraordinary controversy that still, in the 1990s, defies absolutely objective reporting. Indeed, the
longer the disputed history has been debated in the popular press, scientific journals, halls of Congress and Assemble, U.S. patent courts, inside the NIH and Pasteur Institute, the more difficult it has become to separate myth from fact, personality from genuine achievement, nationalism from legitimate scientific competition, and politics from science.
longer the disputed history has been debated in the popular press, scientific journals, halls of Congress and Assemble, U.S. patent courts, inside the NIH and Pasteur Institute, the more difficult it has become to separate myth from fact, personality from genuine achievement, nationalism from legitimate scientific competition, and politics from science.
For the purpose of this book it is not necessary to reinterpret the history of the discovery of HIV-1 and the Franco-American dispute in detail; nor is it germane to the overarching issues of disease emergence.
Nevertheless, curious readers anxious to reach their own conclusions about who discovered HIV-1, and how damaging the scientific duel may have been to the overall AIDS research efforts, are directed to the following:
⢠M. Chase, “French Scientists Sue U.S. on AIDS Research Royalties,”
Wall Street Journal
, December 16, 1985: Al.
Wall Street Journal
, December 16, 1985: Al.
⢠Connor and Kingman (1988), op. cit., Chapters 3 and 4.
⢠J. Crewdson, “The Great AIDS Quest,”
Chicago Tribune,
November 19, 1989: Al.
Chicago Tribune,
November 19, 1989: Al.
⢠F. J. Dyson, “Science in Trouble,”
American Scholar
62 (1993): 513â25.
American Scholar
62 (1993): 513â25.
⢠A. G. Fettner,
Viruses
:
Agents of Change
, Part III (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990).
Viruses
:
Agents of Change
, Part III (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990).
⢠Gallo,
Virus Hunting
(1991), op. cit., Part III.
Virus Hunting
(1991), op. cit., Part III.
⢠R. C. Gallo, G. M. Shaw, and P. D. Markham, “The Etiology of AIDS,” Chapter 2 in V. T. DeVita, S. Hellman, and S. A. Rosenberg, eds.,
AIDS: Etiology, Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention
(New York: J. B. Lippincott, 1985).
AIDS: Etiology, Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention
(New York: J. B. Lippincott, 1985).
⢠M. D. Grmek (1990), op. cit., Chapters 6 and 7.
⢠Groupe de Travail Français sur le SIDA, “Le Syndrome dâImmuno-déficit Acquis: Une Nouvelle Maladie d'Origine Infectieuse?”
La Presse Médicale
12 (1983): 2453â56.
La Presse Médicale
12 (1983): 2453â56.
⢠C. Marwick, “French, U.S. Viral Isolates Compared in Search for Cause of AIDS,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
251 (1984): 2901â9.
Journal of the American Medical Association
251 (1984): 2901â9.
⢠J. Palca, “Hints Emerge from the Gallo Probe,” Science 253 (1991): 728â31.
⢠D. Remnick, “Robert Gallo Goes to War,”
Washington Post
, August 9, 1987: 11, 43.
Washington Post
, August 9, 1987: 11, 43.
⢠Research Integrity Adjudications Panel, Docket No. A-93-100. Decision No. 1446, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1993.
⢠“Settling the AIDS Virus Dispute” and “The Chronology of AIDS Research,” both in
Nature
326 (1987): 425â26 and 435â36.
Nature
326 (1987): 425â26 and 435â36.
⢠B. Seytre, “British Say Pasteur Institute Slighted Their Help on AIDS Test,”
Nature
358 (1992): 358.
Nature
358 (1992): 358.
⢠R. Shilts (1987), op. cit.
⢠“The One True Virus,”
The Economist
, June 8, 1991: 83â84.
The Economist
, June 8, 1991: 83â84.
⢠B. Werth, “By AIDS Obsessed,”
GQ Magazine,
August 1991: 144â208.
GQ Magazine,
August 1991: 144â208.
69
Working on the effort in 1982â85 in the Gallo lab at the National Cancer Institute were Flossie Wong-Stahl, M. G. Sarngadharan, S. Zaki Salahuddin, Mikulas Popovic, Beatrice Hahn, George Shaw, Howard Streicher, and Genoveffa Franchini.
70
J. Maurice, “Human âT' Leukemia Virus Still Suspected in AIDS,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
250 (1983): 1015â21.
Journal of the American Medical Association
250 (1983): 1015â21.
71
Jay Levy's laboratory group included Anthony Hoffman, Susan Kramer, Jill Landis, Joni Shimabukuro, and Lyndon Oshiro.
72
J. A. Levy and J. S. Ziegler, “Acquired Immunodeficiency and Kaposi's Sarcoma Results from Secondary Immune Stimulant,”
Lancet
II (1983): 78â81.
Lancet
II (1983): 78â81.
73
R. T. Ravenholt, “Role of Hepatitis B Virus in Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome,”
Lancet
II (1983): 885â86.
Lancet
II (1983): 885â86.
74
M. H. Poleski, “Kaposi's Sarcoma and Hepatitis B Vaccine,”
Annals of Internal Medicin
e 97 (1982): 5; M. I. McDonald, J. D. Hamilton, and D. T. Duract, “Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Could Harbour the Infective Agent of AIDS,”
Lancet
II (1983): 882â84; letters from various authors,
New England Journal of Medicine
312 (1985): 375â76; H. S. Sacks, D. N. Rose, and T. C. Chalmers, “Should the Risk of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Deter Hepatitis B Vaccination?”
Journal of the American Medical Association
252 (1984): 3375â77; and Centers for Disease Control, “Hepatitis B Vaccine: Evidence Confirming Lack of AIDS Transmission,”
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
33 (1984): 685â87.
Annals of Internal Medicin
e 97 (1982): 5; M. I. McDonald, J. D. Hamilton, and D. T. Duract, “Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Could Harbour the Infective Agent of AIDS,”
Lancet
II (1983): 882â84; letters from various authors,
New England Journal of Medicine
312 (1985): 375â76; H. S. Sacks, D. N. Rose, and T. C. Chalmers, “Should the Risk of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Deter Hepatitis B Vaccination?”
Journal of the American Medical Association
252 (1984): 3375â77; and Centers for Disease Control, “Hepatitis B Vaccine: Evidence Confirming Lack of AIDS Transmission,”
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
33 (1984): 685â87.
75
H. L. Coulter,
AIDS and Syphilis: The Hidden Link
(Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1987).
AIDS and Syphilis: The Hidden Link
(Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1987).
76
H. H. Neumann, “Use of Steroid Creams as a Possible Cause of Immunosuppression in Homosexuals,”
New England Journal of Medicine
306 (1982): 935.
New England Journal of Medicine
306 (1982): 935.
77
P. N. Goldwater, B. J. L. Synek, T. D. Koelmeyer, and P. J. Scott, “Scrapie-Associated Fibrils and AIDS Encephalopathy,”
Lancet
II (1985): 1300.
Lancet
II (1985): 1300.
78
J. Teas, “Could AIDS Agent Be a New Variant of African Swine Fever Virus?”
Lancet
I (1983): 922â23; and J. Beldekas. J. Teas, and J. R. Hebert, “African Swine Fever and AIDS,”
Lancet
I (1986): 564â65.
Lancet
I (1983): 922â23; and J. Beldekas. J. Teas, and J. R. Hebert, “African Swine Fever and AIDS,”
Lancet
I (1986): 564â65.
79
For an excellent analysis of these and other theories on the origin and cause of AIDS, see R. Sabatier,
Blaming Others: Prejudice, Race and Worldwide AIDS
(London: Panos Institute, 1988).
Blaming Others: Prejudice, Race and Worldwide AIDS
(London: Panos Institute, 1988).
80
R. J. Ablin and M. J. Gonder, “Possible Immunosuppressive Factors in Blood Products,”
Annals of Internal Medicine
100 (1984): 155â56.
Annals of Internal Medicine
100 (1984): 155â56.
81
T. J. Greenwalt, “Blood-Products Transfusion and the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome,”
Annals of Internal Medicine
100 (1984): 155.
Annals of Internal Medicine
100 (1984): 155.
82
A. J. Amman, D. W. Wara, S. Dritz, et al., “Acquired Immunodeficiency in an Infant: Possible Transmission by Means of Blood Products,”
Lancet
I (1983): 956â58; G. Angarano, G. Pastore, L. Monno, et al., “Rapid Spread of HTLV-II Infection Among Drug Addicts in Italy,”
Lancet
II (1985): 1302; J. R. Bove, “Transfusion-Associated AIDS: A Cause for Concern,”
New England Journal
of
Medicine
310 (1984): 115â16; J. R. Jett, J. N. Kuritsky, J. A. Katzmann, and H. A. Homburger, “Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Associated with Blood-Product Transfusion,”
Annals of Internal Medicine
99 (1983): 621â24; E. Lissen, I. Wichmann, J. M. Jimenez, and F. Andrew-Kern, “AIDS in Haemophilia Patients in Spain,”
Lancet
I (1983): 992; M. Malbye, R. J. Biggar, J. C. Chermann, et al., “High Prevalence of Lymphadenopathy Virus (LAV) in European Haemophiliacs,”
Lancet
II (1984): 40â41; and J. Wood, “AIDS Mystery: Why It Misses Many Blood Recipients,”
San Francisco Chronicle
, July 10. 1983: A4.
Lancet
I (1983): 956â58; G. Angarano, G. Pastore, L. Monno, et al., “Rapid Spread of HTLV-II Infection Among Drug Addicts in Italy,”
Lancet
II (1985): 1302; J. R. Bove, “Transfusion-Associated AIDS: A Cause for Concern,”
New England Journal
of
Medicine
310 (1984): 115â16; J. R. Jett, J. N. Kuritsky, J. A. Katzmann, and H. A. Homburger, “Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Associated with Blood-Product Transfusion,”
Annals of Internal Medicine
99 (1983): 621â24; E. Lissen, I. Wichmann, J. M. Jimenez, and F. Andrew-Kern, “AIDS in Haemophilia Patients in Spain,”
Lancet
I (1983): 992; M. Malbye, R. J. Biggar, J. C. Chermann, et al., “High Prevalence of Lymphadenopathy Virus (LAV) in European Haemophiliacs,”
Lancet
II (1984): 40â41; and J. Wood, “AIDS Mystery: Why It Misses Many Blood Recipients,”
San Francisco Chronicle
, July 10. 1983: A4.
83
R. D. deShazo, A. Andes, J. Nordberg, et al., “An Immunologic Evaluation of Hemophiliac Patients and Their Wives,”
Annals of Internal Medicine
99 (1983): 159â64.
Annals of Internal Medicine
99 (1983): 159â64.
84
H. W. Jaffe, K. Choi, P. A. Thomas, et al., “National Case-Control Study of Kaposi's Sarcoma
and Pneumocystis carinii
Pneumonia in Homosexual Men: Part 1, Epidemiologic Results,”
Annals of Internal Medicine
99 (1983): 145â51.
and Pneumocystis carinii
Pneumonia in Homosexual Men: Part 1, Epidemiologic Results,”
Annals of Internal Medicine
99 (1983): 145â51.
85
M. F. Rogers, D. M. Morens, J. A. Stewart, et al., “National Case-Control Study of Kaposi's Sarcoma and
Pneumocystis carinii
Pneumonia in Homosexual Men: Part 2, Laboratory Results,”
Annals of Internal Medicine
99 (1983): 151â58.
Pneumocystis carinii
Pneumonia in Homosexual Men: Part 2, Laboratory Results,”
Annals of Internal Medicine
99 (1983): 151â58.
86
Nature
302 (1983): 749â50.
302 (1983): 749â50.
87
D. P. Francis, J. W. Curran, and M. Essex, “Epidemic Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome: Epidemiologic Evidence for a Transmissible Agent,”
Journal of the National Cancer Institute
71 (1983): 1â4.
Journal of the National Cancer Institute
71 (1983): 1â4.
88
Press release of the Office of Cancer Communications, National Cancer Institute, May 12, 1983. The press release refers to the
Science
studies, which were: R. C. Gallo, P. S. Sarin, E. P. Gelmann, et al., “Isolation of Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus in Acquired Immune-Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS),”
Science
220 (1983): 865â67; E. P. Gelmann, M. Popovic, D. Blayney, et al., “Proviral DNA of a Retrovirus, Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus, in Two Patients with AIDS,”
Science
220 (1983): 862â65; M. Essex, M. F. McLane, T. H. Lee, et al., “Antibodies to Cell Membrane Antigens Associated with Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus in Patients with AIDS,” Science 220 (1983): 859â62; and F. Barré-Sinoussi, J. C. Chermann, F. Rey, et al., “Isolation of a T-Lymphotropic Retrovirus from a Patient at Risk for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS),”
Science
220 (1983): 868â71.
Science
studies, which were: R. C. Gallo, P. S. Sarin, E. P. Gelmann, et al., “Isolation of Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus in Acquired Immune-Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS),”
Science
220 (1983): 865â67; E. P. Gelmann, M. Popovic, D. Blayney, et al., “Proviral DNA of a Retrovirus, Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus, in Two Patients with AIDS,”
Science
220 (1983): 862â65; M. Essex, M. F. McLane, T. H. Lee, et al., “Antibodies to Cell Membrane Antigens Associated with Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus in Patients with AIDS,” Science 220 (1983): 859â62; and F. Barré-Sinoussi, J. C. Chermann, F. Rey, et al., “Isolation of a T-Lymphotropic Retrovirus from a Patient at Risk for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS),”
Science
220 (1983): 868â71.
89
J. Oleske, A. Minnefor, R. Cooper, et al., “Immune Deficiency Syndrome in Children,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
249 (1983): 2345â49; and A. Rubinstein, M. Sicklick, A. Gupta, et al., “Acquired Immunodeficiency with Reversed T4/T8 Ratios in Infants Born to Promiscuous and Drug-Addicted Mothers,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
249 (1983): 2350â56.
Journal of the American Medical Association
249 (1983): 2345â49; and A. Rubinstein, M. Sicklick, A. Gupta, et al., “Acquired Immunodeficiency with Reversed T4/T8 Ratios in Infants Born to Promiscuous and Drug-Addicted Mothers,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
249 (1983): 2350â56.
90
Centers for Disease Control, “Immunodeficiency Among Female Sexual Partners of Males with Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)âNew York,”
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
31 (1983): 697â98.
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
31 (1983): 697â98.
91
There are several sources of reference for motivated readers. See A. Goldstein,
Addiction
:
From Biology to Drug Policy
(New York: W. H. Freeman, 1994); and E. M. Brecher,
Licit and Illicit
Drugs (Boston: Little, Brown, 1972). The Goldstein book contains an extremely useful reading list.
Addiction
:
From Biology to Drug Policy
(New York: W. H. Freeman, 1994); and E. M. Brecher,
Licit and Illicit
Drugs (Boston: Little, Brown, 1972). The Goldstein book contains an extremely useful reading list.
92
R. V. Henrickson, D. H. Maul, K. G. Osborn, et al., “Epidemic of Acquired Immunodeficiency in a Colony of Macaque Monkeys,”
Lancet
I (1983): 388â90.
Lancet
I (1983): 388â90.
93
M. D. Daniel, N. W. King, N. L. Letvin, et al., “A New Type D Retrovirus Isolated from Macaques with an Immunodeficiency Syndrome,”
Science
223 (1984): 602â5.
Science
223 (1984): 602â5.
94
G. Weissman, “AIDS and Heat,”
Hospital Practice,
October 1983: 136â49.
Hospital Practice,
October 1983: 136â49.
95
I. Braveny, “AIDSâA New Plague?”
European Journal of Clinical Microbiology
2 (1983): 183â85.
European Journal of Clinical Microbiology
2 (1983): 183â85.
96
See D. Grady, “AIDS: A Plague of Fear,”
Discover
, July 1983: 73â77; J. E. Groopman and M. S. Gottlieb, “AIDS: The Widening Gyre,”
Nature
303 (1983): 575â76; and Shilts (1987), op. cit.
Discover
, July 1983: 73â77; J. E. Groopman and M. S. Gottlieb, “AIDS: The Widening Gyre,”
Nature
303 (1983): 575â76; and Shilts (1987), op. cit.
97
Maurice (1983), op. cit.
98
Groupe de Travail Français sur le SIDA, “Le Syndrome d'Immunodéficit Acquis,”
La Presse Médicale
12 (1983): 2453â56.
La Presse Médicale
12 (1983): 2453â56.
99
H. W. Jaffe, D. P. Francis, M. F. McLane, et al., “Transfusion-Associated AIDS: Serologic Evidence of Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Infection of Donors,”
Science
223 (1984): 1309â12.
Science
223 (1984): 1309â12.
100
E. Vilmer, F. Barré-Sinoussi, C. Rouzioux, et al., “Isolation of New Lymphotropic Retrovirus from Two Siblings with Haemophilia B, One with AIDS,”
Lancet
I (1984): 753â57.
Lancet
I (1984): 753â57.
101
M. Chase, “Cancer Virus Tied to AIDS May Be Disclosed Soon,”
Wall Street Journal
, April 16, 1984: A1.
Wall Street Journal
, April 16, 1984: A1.
102
M. Popovic, M. G. Sarngadharan, E. Read, and R. Gallo, “Detection, Isolation, and Continuous Production of Cytopathic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) from Patients with AIDS and Pre-AIDS,”
Science
224 (1984): 497â500; R. C. Gallo, S. Z. Salahuddin, M. Popovic, et al., “Frequent Detection and Isolation of Cytopathic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) from Patients with AIDS and at Risk for AIDS,”
Science
224 (1984): 500â2; J. Schiipbach, M. Popovic, R. V. Gilden, et al., “Serological Analysis of a Subgroup of Human T-Lympho tropic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) Associated with AIDS,”
Science
224 (1984): 503â5; and M. G. Sarngadharan, M. Popovic, L. Bruch, et al., “Antibodies Reactive with Human T-Lymphotropic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) in the Serum of Patients with AIDS,”
Science
224 (1984): 506â8.
Science
224 (1984): 497â500; R. C. Gallo, S. Z. Salahuddin, M. Popovic, et al., “Frequent Detection and Isolation of Cytopathic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) from Patients with AIDS and at Risk for AIDS,”
Science
224 (1984): 500â2; J. Schiipbach, M. Popovic, R. V. Gilden, et al., “Serological Analysis of a Subgroup of Human T-Lympho tropic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) Associated with AIDS,”
Science
224 (1984): 503â5; and M. G. Sarngadharan, M. Popovic, L. Bruch, et al., “Antibodies Reactive with Human T-Lymphotropic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) in the Serum of Patients with AIDS,”
Science
224 (1984): 506â8.
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