The Idea Factory: Bell Labs and the Great Age of American Innovation (64 page)

creation of, 31–32

Depression and, 43

development and systems engineers at, 173

diffusion of new technologies from, 111

downsizing at, 333

durability tests at, 48–49

essential idea of, 32–33

funding for, 154, 156, 333, 336, 351

growth of, 76–77

Holmdel facility,
see
Holmdel

individual genius vs. collaboration at, 133–35

interdisciplinary groups at, 79–80

Kelly’s lectures about, 149–52

Kwajalein outpost of, 293–94

lectures at, 43

Lucent and, 335–37, 338, 340, 346

management style at, 102

markets for products of, 154

materials at, 50–51, 81–83, 114

math department at, 122–23, 133

military and,
see
military

Murray Hill facility of, 75–79, 81, 88, 93, 146, 151, 331, 335, 336, 338, 340

narrowing of ambitions at, 334–35, 346

notebooks at, 56–57

number of workers at, 172–73

qualities shared by recruits at, 38–39

research scientists at, 173

social and professional exchanges at, 151

solid-state group at, 43, 79, 80, 81, 86–91, 92, 102, 103, 105, 112, 134, 150–51

study groups at, 43–44

technical assistants at, 154

West Street offices of, 26–27, 31, 75, 76, 146, 339–40

World War II and, 59–74, 81

Bennett, William, 256

bits, 129

Bode, Hendrik, 146, 147

Bohr, Niels, 51, 69, 267

bombs, 71

atomic, 59–60, 65–66, 74, 104, 202, 356

Bown, Ralph, 96–97, 99–100, 104–6, 108, 141, 150, 266, 334, 357–58

Brattain, Walter, 39, 42, 43, 44, 57–58, 80–81, 83, 85, 87–89, 93–97, 111, 154, 163, 166, 170, 180, 183, 266, 315–16

Bardeen and, 89

death of, 316

laboratory of, 93

Nobel Prize awarded to, 181

Pierce and, 197

transistor work of, 99–107, 110–11, 114, 171, 180, 181, 281, 315–16

Braun, Ernest, 90, 108, 152

Bridge, The,
61–62

Brown, Benjamin, 316

Brown, Charles, 298, 299, 301, 333

Brown, Walter, 56, 310

Brownell, Herbert, 182

Buchsbaum, Sol, 302, 357

Buckley, Oliver, 37, 40, 44–45, 59, 63, 64, 69, 73, 105, 106, 112, 156, 157, 160, 236, 245, 246, 282

as Bell Labs president, 78–79

Murray Hill complex and, 76–77, 78

retirement of, 156, 157

Buehler, Ernie, 167–68

Bush, Vannevar, 116–20, 123, 157

Business Week,
253

Byron, Christopher, 333

California Institute of Technology (Caltech), 14, 267

Pierce at, 191–93, 324, 325

Shockley at, 53–54, 192

carbon granules, 12, 20

Carr, Nicholas, 342

Carty, John J., 21–22, 27, 31

cell phones, 3, 131, 227, 233–34, 279–83, 284, 286–97, 335

Chaffee, Joe, 222

Chapin, Daryl, 171, 172

charge-coupled device (CCD), 261, 341

chess computer, 136, 137–38, 143, 322

chips, 252–53

Christensen, Clayton, 349

Chu, Steven, 331, 355

CIA, 247

Clark, Thomas, 158

Clarke, Arthur C., 4–5, 177, 178, 179, 197, 203

Clifford, Clark, 248, 328

codes, 124–25, 126

Coll, Steve, 271

Columbia University, 43

communication and messages, 121, 125–26, 128–32

cryptography and, 124–25, 131, 141, 147

digital, 129–31, 185, 250–51

optical, 256–61

pattern followed by, 128

Communications Development Training Program (CDT; “Kelly College”), 153, 293

Communications Satellite Act, 224

computers, 105–6, 155, 182, 184, 197, 226, 235, 250, 252, 253

chess, 136, 137–38, 143, 322

digital, 123, 251

Echo and, 214

electronic switching and, 233

music and, 225, 244, 325–27

Shannon and, 117–18, 136–44

COMSAT, 224

Conant, James, 157

“Convergence in Webster” game, 133, 197

copper, 83, 84, 86

Cornell University, 14

Corning Glass Works, 261, 262, 277, 278

Craig, Cleo, 179–80

Crawford Hill, 214–18, 220, 223, 258, 259, 340

Cronkite, Walter, 226

cryptography, 124–25, 131, 141, 147

Cuban Missile Crisis, 248

Cutler, C. Chapin, 214

cybernetics, 142

Danielian, N. R., 45–47

Darrow, Karl, 41–42, 43, 202

David, Edward, 228, 229, 238

Davisson, Clinton J. “Davy,” 28–30, 32, 33, 37, 40, 43, 52, 60, 61, 69, 152, 353, 359

Murray Hill complex and, 76

DeButts, John, 273–74, 298

De Forest, Lee, 23

Depression, Great, 36, 37, 41, 43, 75

digital computing, 123, 251

digital information, 129–31, 185, 250–51

digital photography, 261

DiPiazza, Gerry, 293–95

discovery, invention vs., 106–7

Distant Early Warning (DEW) line, 161, 182

“Don’t Write: Telegraph” (Pierce), 202–3

Dorros, Irwin, 239, 264, 265, 333

Drucker, Peter, 302–3, 330

DuBridge, Lee, 157, 245

DuPont, 167

Echo, 212–20, 221, 222, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 244, 254, 323, 340

Edison, Thomas, 11–13, 14, 29, 81, 152

carbon granules and, 12, 20

Einstein, Albert, 43, 51, 267

Shannon and, 121, 131–32

Eisenhower, Dwight D., 157, 182, 217–18, 246, 247

electrolytes, 93–94, 95

electromagnetic waves, 235–36

electron diffraction, 37

electronic switching (ESS), 229, 231–34, 235, 260, 261, 290–91

electrons, 15, 42, 43, 83–84, 85, 95, 101

Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors
(Shockley), 112

Elizabeth II, Queen, 224

Elmendorf, Chuck, 55, 192–94, 236, 283, 288, 312, 358

energy innovation, 355–56

Engel, Joel, 287–91, 294–95, 354

Epstein, Paul, 15

Espenschied, Lloyd, 63–64

Facebook, 344, 353–54

Fairchild Semiconductor, 251, 252

Fano, Robert, 131

Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 226–27, 260, 270–72, 280–83, 286–88, 290, 295–97, 302, 329

Fermi, Enrico, 43, 60

Feynman, Richard, 42, 63

fiber optics, 258–62, 277–79, 331, 341

testing of, 296–97

field effect, 90–91, 92, 101

Fisk, Jim, 2, 3, 38, 41, 43, 55, 59–60, 68–72, 80, 88, 133, 159, 170, 184–85, 211–13, 234–37, 242, 245–46, 248, 252, 254, 258, 260, 263, 268, 285, 300, 304, 306, 307, 311–13

Baker and, 241–42, 243

retirement of, 266

Fleckenstein, Bill, 237

Fletcher, Harvey, 15, 16, 22, 25, 26, 28, 40, 43, 65, 80, 96, 267

Jewett and, 24

Flexner, Simon, 205

Forrester, Jay, 105–6, 334

Fortune,
142, 163–64, 166, 184–85, 219, 243, 270

Frenkiel, Dick, 284–96, 351

Friis, Harald, 152–53, 174, 196, 206, 209, 213

Fry, Thornton, 122–23

Fuller, Cal, 168–69, 171–72

functional devices, 252

Galambos, Louis, 19–20

Gallatin, Mo., 9–11, 38, 342

Gates, Bill, 4, 357

General Electric (GE), 163, 251, 303, 348

germanium, 86–87, 93–95, 99, 102–4, 107, 109–10, 165–66, 168, 169

purification of, 114, 134

Gibney, Robert B., 93, 96

Ginsparg, Paul, 337

glass, 83

Glennan, Keith, 211

glider planes, 189–90, 192

Goeken, Jack, 271

“Gold Bug, The” (Poe), 124

Golden, William, 157

Goodell, Rae, 313

Google, 341, 344, 353–54

Gordon, Eugene, 109

Gould, Gordon, 255

Gray, Elisha, 17–18, 98

Greene, Harold, 297–98, 299, 302

Gunther-Mohr, Robert, 305–6

Hagelbarger, David, 144, 148

Hagstrum, Homer, 201–2

Hartley, Ralph, 121

Hayes, Brian, 339

Hecht, Jeff, 259

Herriott, Donald, 256

Hewlett, Bill, 308

Hewlett-Packard, 308, 319

Hill, Charles, 179–80

Hoddeson, Lillian, 44, 79, 88, 105

Hoerni, Jean, 181

Holmdel, 213–17, 278, 281

Black Box, 284–85, 331, 338, 339, 340, 354

Crawford Hill, 214–18, 220, 223, 258, 259, 340

horn antenna, 173–74, 206, 207, 209, 215, 223

Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 354–55

How to Build and Fly Gliders
(Pierce), 189, 190, 192, 200

Hughes Aircraft, 255

IBM, 348

Kelly as consultant for, 305–6

Imperial College of Science and Engineering, 141

information, 342

digital, 129–31, 185, 250–51

see also
communication and messages

information theory, 125, 128–30, 135, 136, 141, 142, 149, 151, 185–86, 202, 281, 318–19

innovation, 152–53, 250, 260, 343–44

competition and, 352

energy, 355–56

at Janelia Farm, 355

Kelly’s approach to, 151–52, 186, 211, 343, 345, 347

mistakes in, 262

Morton on, 108–9, 113, 152

spurs to, 153

use of term, 107, 151–52

venture economy and, 347–48

innovation hubs, 355

innovator’s dilemma, 349–50

Institute of Radio Engineers, 203

integrated circuits, 253–54, 260, 261–62, 339

Intel, 290, 308, 341

Internet, 334, 335, 342

invention, 152–53

discovery vs., 106–7

individual genius vs. collaboration in, 133–35

Jakes, Bill, 212–18, 227, 280, 291–92, 295

Jakes, Mary, 214, 215, 216

James, Frank, 10

James, Jesse, 10

Janelia Farm, 354–55

Jansky, Karl, 106

Japan Prize, 359

Javan, Ali, 256

Jet Propulsion,
203

Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 210–11, 214, 215, 325

Jewett, Frank Baldwin, 16–19, 21, 24, 26, 27, 30, 31–33, 36–37, 45, 59, 64, 82, 83, 106, 157, 192, 246, 268, 300, 353, 356

as chairman, 78

Fletcher and, 24

Millikan and, 16–17, 22, 24

Murray Hill complex and, 76–77

transatlantic phone service and, 176

transcontinental phone service and, 21–22

Jobs, Steve, 357

Johns Hopkins University, 14

Johnson, Lyndon B., 223, 247, 248

Kahn, David, 125

Kao, Charles, 258–59, 261

Kappel, Frederick, 219, 220, 223, 231

Kasparov, Garry, 322

Keefauver, Bill, 239

Kelly, Joseph Fennimore, 9–10, 11

Kelly, Katherine, 16, 28, 155

Kelly, Mervin, 2, 3, 9–11, 13, 14, 24, 25, 26, 28–30, 32, 33, 36–38, 40, 41, 44–48, 51, 52, 59–71, 73–74, 78–81, 83, 85, 88, 108, 113–14, 127, 134, 141, 149–62, 163, 165, 169, 170, 172–73, 180, 183–85, 234, 236, 242–46, 249, 253, 266–67, 270–71, 274, 285, 300, 304–7, 311, 339, 342–43, 345–46, 352, 353

amplifier work and, 95–97

as Bell Labs executive vice president, 79, 156

as Bell Labs president, 156, 157

death of, 306–7

early life of, 9–10, 342

gardens of, 155–56, 304

as IBM consultant, 305–6

innovation as viewed by, 151–52, 186, 211, 343, 345, 347

interdisciplinary groups created by, 79–80

lectures about Bell labs given by, 149–52

military work of, 157–62, 307

Millikan and, 16

mobile phones and, 280

Murray Hill complex and, 75–78

Nobel Prize and, 181

Parkinson’s disease of, 306

Pierce and, 195–96, 306–7, 345–46

retirement of, 212, 304–5

Sandia Labs and, 159–60, 271

satellite project and, 210, 211–12, 220, 225

Shockley and, 56, 180–82

transatlantic phone cable and, 176–79

transistor and, 99, 101, 105, 108, 110–13, 180

vacuum tube work of, 33–36, 37, 82, 349

work habits of, 155, 156–57

Kennedy, John F., 224, 247, 248

Kilby, Jack, 251–54, 262

Killian, James, 157, 245

Kim, Jeong, 337–38, 343

Kleiner, Eugene, 181, 346

Kleiner Perkins, 346, 348

Kleinrock, Len, 317, 319

Kogelnik, Herwig, 256–57, 341, 345

Kompfner, Rudi, 198, 199, 201, 207, 210–14, 216, 217, 223, 256–58, 265, 275–77, 323–24, 341

death of, 324

fiber optics and, 259–60, 261, 277

Kwajalein, 293–94

Kyoto Prize, 322

Land, Edwin, 248

Landau, Henry, 190

language, 125–26

lasers, 207, 254–58, 261, 276–79, 341

Lewbel, Arthur, 320

Li, Tingye, 259

light, 275–76

infrared, 254–55

lasers, 207, 254–58, 261, 276–79, 341

optical communications, 256–61;
see also
fiber optics

Lilienthal, David, 160

Lillienfield, Julius, 101

linemen, 49

Lombardo, Guy, 218–19

Long Lines, 25, 173, 269, 301

Los Alamos, 159

Los Angeles Times,
314

Lucent, 335–37, 338, 340, 346

Lucky, Bob, 129, 131, 144, 265, 274, 332, 357, 359

on Baker, 238

Pierce and, 190–91

Macdonald, Stuart, 90, 108, 152

magnetron, 67–69, 70, 71

Maiman, Ted, 255–56

Manhattan Project, 4, 63, 64, 66, 134, 157, 356

Marconi, Guglielmo, 177

masers, 207, 208, 209, 254–55, 359

“Mathematical Theory of Communication, A” (Shannon), 127–32, 133

“Mathematical Theory of Cryptography, A” (Shannon), 124, 125, 131

Mathews, Max, 185–86, 225, 325–26

Mayo, John, 300, 302, 327, 331, 344, 348–50, 353

McCalley, Andrew, 39

McGowan, Bill, 271–72

MCI (Microwave Communications Inc.), 271–74, 299, 328

McMillan, Brock, 127, 132, 133, 136, 138, 156, 211

Mendel, Gregor, 134

messages,
see
communication and messages

Metcalfe, Robert, 264

Microsoft, 341, 353–54

Microwave Communications Inc. (MCI), 271–74, 299, 328

microwaves, 173–74, 202–3, 206, 207, 233, 288

military, 164, 173, 184, 246–47, 270

Advanced Research Projects Administration (ARPA), 210