The Invisible History of the Human Race (45 page)

based on mouse movements alone
:
J. B. Searle, et al., “Of Mice and (Viking?) Men: Phylogeography of British and Irish House Mice,”
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
276, no. 1655 (2009): 201–7.

did not leave a lasting imprint
:
E. P. Jones, et al., “Fellow Travellers: A Concordance of Colonization Patterns Between Mice and Men in the North Atlantic Region,”
BMC Evolutionary Biology
12, no. 1 (2012): 35.

Chapter 13: The Past Is Written on Your Face:
DNA, Traits, and What We Make of Them

“One of the most fascinating mysteries in Tennessee lore”
:
W. Winkler,
Walking Toward the Sunset: The Melungeons of Appalachia
(Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2005), ix.

“explain what a Melungeon is”
:
Wagne Winkler’s quote comes from my interviews with him. Unless otherwise cited as W. Winkler,
Walking Toward the Sunset: The Melungeons of Appalachia
(Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2005); and W. Winkler, “Melungeons Yesterday and Today: Thirty Years Later,” Melungeon Heritage Association, 2005, available at http://melungeon.ning.com/forum/topics/2005-winkler-article-on-jean-patterson-bible-s-study-of (accessed April 17, 2014), then other Winkler quotes come from my interviews with him.

“A Melungeon isn’t”
:
J. Bible,
Melungeons Yesterday and Today
(Signal Mountain, TN: Mountain Press 5th ed., 1975), 13.

“After the breaking out of the war”
:
W. Winkler,
Walking Toward the Sunset: The Melungeons of Appalachia
(Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2005, 261), 271.

Kennedy, who wrote
The Melungeons
:
N. B. Kennedy and R. V. Kennedy,
The Melungeons: The Resurrection of a Proud People: An Untold Story of Ethnic Cleansing in America
(Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1997). As outlandish as the idea seems that some Melungeons may have descended from settlers who arrived in the United States before Jamestown, or even who came from Roanoke, it’s not that different from another legend-turned-fact further up the East Coast. The stories that Vikings sailed to North America long before the Spanish or the British were considered a fantasy until the 1960s, when the remains of a Norse settlement were dug up in Newfoundland.

“So smooth of tongue”
:
W. Winkler,
Walking Toward the Sunset: The Melungeons of Appalachia
(Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2005), 7.

I want to document as best I can
:
W. Winkler,
Walking Toward the Sunset: The Melungeons of Appalachia
(Macon, GA: Mercer University Press,
2005), xii.

“I saw the still-living tentacles”
:
N. B. Kennedy and R. V. Kennedy,
The Melungeons: The Resurrection of a Proud People: An Untold Story of Ethnic Cleansing in America
(Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1997), 7.

late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
:
This study’s method of selecting subjects was similar to the Viking surname and the Y chromosome study. By choosing names that were independently associated with Viking history and then examining subjects who bore those names for a Viking Y, the researchers in that study maximized the chance that they would find a historical trace of Viking men. In the Melungeon study, by using one of the only independent records of Melungeons that exist, the researchers were able to narrow their focus much more effectively.

people have shovel-shaped incisors
:
Finnish people have shovel-shaped incisors too. It’s thought that as the ancient Asian travelers moved into Beringia, they left some genes in the Finnish Sami population.

“For some reason, people”
:
Quotes from Richard Scott in this chapter are from my interview with him.

single letter within a single gene
:
Variation in the trait is affected by a single letter of DNA; for example, if a particular spot in the gene is filled by a C, then the carrier has wet earwax. If instead the spot is filled by a T, the carrier will have dry earwax. Customers of 23andMe can find out which earwax gene they have. They can also find out if they have the gene that controls the flush reaction to alcohol and the gene that controls the ability to taste bitter tastes, among others.

way from the full picture
:
R. Kimura, et al., “A Common Variation in EDAR Is a Genetic Determinant of Shovel-Shaped Incisors,”
American Journal of Human Genetics
85, no. 4 (2009): 528–35.

more than ten thousand Europeans
:
F. Liu, et al., “A Genome-Wide Association Study Identifies Five Loci Influencing Facial Morphology in Europeans,”
PLoS Genetics
8, no. 9 (2012): e1002932.

They found five genes
:
PAX3, TP63, and one other gene had already been implicated in other studies, but the association of the remaining two with the face was completely new.

DNA on the structure of the face
:
C. Attanasio, et al., “Fine Tuning of Craniofacial Morphology by Distant-Acting Enhancers,”
Science
342, no. 6157 (2013): 1241006.

reconstruction of faces from ancient remains
:
J. Draus-Barini, et al., “Bona Fide Colour: DNA Prediction of Human Eye and Hair Colour from Ancient and Contemporary Skeletal Remains,”
Investigative Genetics
4, no. 1 (2013): 3.

forensic police profiling
:
P. Claes, et al., “Modeling 3D Facial Shape from DNA,”
PLoS Genetics
10, no. 3 (2014): e1004224.

“The fact that identical twins”
:
Quotes from Walter Bodmer in this chapter are from my interview with him.

the accused is of a different race
:
C. A. Meissner and J. C. Brigham, “Thirty Years of Investigating the Own-Race Bias in Memory for Faces: A Meta-Analytic Review,”
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law
7, no. 1 (2001): 3.

African, and East Asian ancestry
:
Y. C. Klimentidis and M. D. Shriver, “Estimating Genetic Ancestry Proportions from Faces,”
PloS ONE
4, no. 2 (2009): e4460.

results from just such a mutation
:
R. M. Harding, et al., “Evidence for Variable Selective Pressures at MC1R,”
American Journal of Human Genetics
66, no. 4 (2000): 1351–61; and P. R. John, et al., “DNA Polymorphism and Selection at the Melanocortin-1 Receptor Gene in Normally Pigmented Southern African Individuals,”
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
994, no. 1 (2003): 299–306.

Chapter 14: The Past May Not Make You Feel Better:
DNA, History, and Health

286–87
Cindy Carroll was in her midforties . . . to him it felt like hours:
L. Priest, “‘I Know How I Am Going to Die,’”
Globe and Mail
, October 13, 2007, available at http://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/i-know-how-i-am-going-to-die
/article1084238/?page=all (accessed April 24, 2014).

called
el mal
or “the bad”
:
M. S. Okun and N. Thommi, “Americo Negrette (1924 to 2003): Diagnosing Huntington Disease in Venezuela,”
Neurology
63, no. 2 (2004): 340–43.

“strange movements, like dancing”
:
R. Weiser, “Huntington’s Disease: A View of Maracaibo Lake” (lecture, World Congress on Huntington’s Disease, Rio de Janeiro, September 16, 2013), available at http://vimeo.com/75658670.

“We just learned the alphabet”
:
Unless otherwise cited, quotes from Jeff Carroll in this chapter are from my interview with him.

“seem to be very close”
:
Unless otherwise cited, quotes from Feldman in this chapter are from my interview with him.

up to 10 percent of all humans
:
A. Bittles and M. Black, “Consanguinity, Human Evolution and Complex Diseases,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
107, no. 1 (2010): 1779–1786.

speculated that they must have been
:
G. McDowell, et al., “The Presence of Two Different Infantile Tay-Sachs Disease Mutations in a Cajun Population,”
American Journal of Human Genetics
51, no. 5 (1992): 1071–77.

three-thousand-year-old culture
:
When they left their homeland, they also committed to the sect’s strict practices. For example, when menstruating or after childbirth, they—along with all women—are considered unclean. They are isolated during this time and not allowed to touch anyone, even their own children, for the first seven days of a period and for forty days after the birth of a son and eighty days after the birth of a daughter.

“women outside our community”
:
T. Heneghan, “Samaritans Use Modern Means to Keep Ancient Faith,”
Reuters
, June 2, available at http://mobile.re
uters.com/article/idUSTRE55201720090603?irpc=932.

“This is my wife and she is my niece”
:
Unless otherwise cited, quotes from Alan Bittles in this chapter are from my interview with him.

the health of individuals today
:
B. M. Henn, et al., “Hunter-Gatherer Genomic Diversity Suggests a Southern African Origin for Modern Humans,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
108, no. 13 (2011): 5154–62.

Why? They don’t know
:
T. Manolio, et al., “Finding the Missing Heritability of Complex Diseases,”
Nature
461, 7265 (2009): 747–753.

did not experience such conditioning
:
B. G. Dias and K. J. Ressler, “Parental Olfactory Experience Influences Behavior and Neural Structure in Subsequent Generations,”
Nature Neuroscience
17, no. 1 (2014): 89–96.

from Greenland, was published
:
M. Rasmussen, et al., “Ancient Human Genome Sequence of an Extinct Palaeo-Eskimo,”
Nature
463, no. 7282 (2010): 757–62.

passed down experiences and predispositions
:
D. Gokhman, et al., “Reconstructing the DNA Methylation Maps of the Neandertal and the Denisovan,”
Science
344, no. 6183 (2014): 523–27.

“Huntington’s disease has been”
:
Unless otherwise cited, quotes from Robert Green in this chapter are from my interviews with him.

“a disease as frightening and untreatable”
:
R. C. Green, et al., “Disclosure of APOE Genotype for Risk of Alzheimer’s Disease,”
New England Journal of Medicine
361, no. 3 (2009): 245–54.

“Historical research has shown that the idea”
:
American Anthropological Association Statement on “Race,” May 17, 1998, available at http://www
.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm.

Epilogue

decision making in India
:
K. R. Hoff, M. Kshetramade, and E. Fehr, “Caste and Punishment: The Legacy of Caste Culture in Norm Enforcement,”
IZA Discussion Paper no. 4343, August 2009.

“Men still didn’t like women leaders”
:
Unless otherwise cited, quotes from Karla Hoff in this chapter are from my interview with her.

“information wants to be free”
:
S. Pinker, “My Genome, My Self,”
New York Times Magazine
, January 11, 2009.

“No harm can come”
:
Unless otherwise cited, quotes from Steven Pinker in this chapter are from my interview with him.

a professor at Duke University
:
M. Angrist,
Here Is a Human Being: At the Dawn of Personal Genomics
(New York: Harper Collins, 2010).

“One thing I notice is alleles”
:
Unless otherwise cited, quotes from Misha Angrist in this chapter are from my interview with him.

“It’s like learning American history”
:
Quotes from Esther Dyson in this chapter are from my interview with her.

they found their families too
:
M. Gymrek, et al., “Identifying Personal Genomes by Surname Inference,”
Science
339, no. 6117 (2013): 321–24.

passed through a language barrier
:
R. M. Ross, S. J. Greenhill, and Q. D. Atkinson, “Population Structure and Cultural Geography of a Folktale in Europe,”
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
280, no. 1756 (2013): 2012.3065.

whereas genes are creamy
:
R. Khan, “Why Culture Is Chunky and Genes Are Creamy
,” Gene Expression,
February 6, 2013,
available at http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2013/02/why-culture-is-chunky-and-genes-are-creamy/?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+GeneExpressionBlog+%28Gene+Expression%29#.U5NSwJRdUsy.

of course, Shakespeare’s sonnets
:
N. Goldman, et al., “Towards Practical, High-Capacity, Low-Maintenance Information Storage in Synthesized DNA,”
Nature
494, no. 7435 (2013).

The page numbers in this index refer to the printed version of this book. To find the corresponding locations in the text of this digital version, please use the “search” function on your e-reader. Note that not all terms may be searchable.

Aachen, 148

adoptees, 85–92, 124

family searches by, 211–12

Africa, 32, 141, 247, 250–51, 258, 261

Bantu in, 255

Benin, 143–46

Bushmen in, 255–56

distrust in, 143–46, 150–51, 156

genome and, 254–55

humanity’s origin in and exodus from, 234, 246–48, 250–52, 255, 284, 303

Khoe-San in, 251

Pygmies In, 255

skin color and, 284–85

slave trade in, 140–46, 256–57

African American Lives,
282

African Americans, 47, 71, 257

Grant and, 59–60

little races and, 271

Melungeons and, 271, 276

segregation and, 60

Afrobarometer, 145

aging, 30

agriculture, 248, 253, 259

invention of the plow, 152–53

wheat-growing cultures vs. rice-growing cultures, 153–54

Ahnenpass,
73–74

Alexander, Alison, 98–107

al-Hilali, Taj el-Din, 108

Alzheimer’s disease, 308, 317

American Anthropological Association, 311

American Breeders Association, 62

American Society of Human Genetics, 233

Americas, 249, 255, 256

amylase, 258–59

ancestry, 262–63

looks-based judgments on, 283–84

race and, 239, 263

Ancestry.com, 17, 40, 81, 92, 124–30, 206–7

AncestryDNA.com, 207, 210, 212

Angrist, Misha, 317

animals, domestication of, 261

Antarctica, 249

Anthill, William, 138

Anzick-1, 250

APOE gene, 308, 317

Apted, Michael, 136

Arnarson, Ingólfur, 132

Ashkenazis, 297

diseases in, 297–98, 300

Asian genealogies, 31–32

Austen, Jane, 183, 243

Australia, 3, 27, 69, 249, 281, 318

Aboriginals in, 251, 255, 281, 282, 283

British colonization of, 255

children institutionalized in, 86–92

convicts in, 2, 17, 96–110, 135–38

Deegan in, 2, 3, 96–98, 108–10

Founders and Survivors and, 135–38

genomes and, 250

indigenous children in, 92

records in, 88, 91–92, 135–38

Returned & Services League in Parramatta, 17–19, 22

Tasmania, 96–97, 99–105, 107–8

autism, 304

autosomes, 202

DNA in, 207, 210, 211, 213, 216, 257

baboons, 20

Baird, Jane, 98

Bakewell, Robert, 49–51, 53, 107, 261

Banks-Young, Shay, 232

Bantu, 255

Bateson, William, 53

Beagle
(HMS), 101, 183

beliefs, 157, 177

about gender differences, 152–53

see also
ideas and feelings

Bell, Alexander William, 62

Benga, Ota, 57–58

Benin, 143–46

Beringia, 249

beta thalassemia, 301

Bettinger, Blaine, 210–11

Bible, 36, 50, 121

Bible, Jean Patterson, 268

Bieble, surname, 199–200

Bieble Y, 199–200

bin Laden, Osama, 183

birth certificates, 87, 88–89

birthers, 40

bitter-taste-receptor genes, 259

Bittles, Alan, 302

Black Death, 147–48, 149, 151, 180

Blake, William, 163

blindness, 129

blood clotting, 306

blood groups, 162–63

Blue Jacket
(ship), 138

Bodmer, Julia, 164

Bodmer, Walter, 164, 165, 168, 282–83

Boone and Crockett Club, 56

Borjigin, Baiying, 93–95

Boserup, Ester, 152

Boston Tea Party, 42

bottlenecks, 247–48, 250–51, 255, 256, 260, 295, 303

Bradbury, Mary, 35

Braithwaite, John, 101, 107

Brandt, Karl, 75

BRCA mutation, 305

breast cancer, 305

Breeder’s Gazette,
51

breeding, 51, 54

eugenics and,
see
eugenics

of sheep, 49–51, 59

Brigham Young University, 205–6

Bright, Jonathan Brown, 34

Britain, 159–61, 163–64

Celts in, 168–70, 173–74, 243

genetic patterns in, 164–68, 171–77, 213, 221–22, 236, 283

history of, 168–74

Roman, 170–73

Saxons in, 168–74, 177

surnames in, 196–97

British Broadcasting Company (BBC), 119–20

British Medical Journal,
233

Buck, Carrie, 64

Burbury, Thomas, 104

Burwell, Lewis, 37

Bushmen, 255–56

Butler, Carrie, 24

CAG sequence, 289, 304, 306

Cajuns, 298–99, 301

Canada, 92, 133–34, 137, 318

French Canadians in, 298

cancer, 309

breast, 305

candidate gene studies, 162

carbon dioxide, 180

Carroll, Cindy, 286–87

Carroll, Jeff, 286–87, 290–95, 308, 311–12

case-control studies, 164

Cassanga tribe, 140–41

Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca, 234–36

Celts, 168–70, 173–74, 243

census data, 41, 47, 128–29, 133

Cerdic, King, 35

Chancellor, Anna, 183

childbirth rates, 61

children:

knowledge of family history in, 115

orphaned and institutionalized,
85–92, 124

China, 32, 93–96

Cultural Revolution in, 94

records in, 94–96, 127

surnames in, 192

wheat-growing cultures vs. rice-growing cultures in, 153–54

chromosomes, 31, 184, 201

hot spots on, 218

recombination of, 184–85, 201, 202, 214–15, 216, 218

X, 184, 201, 202, 216, 257

Y,
see
Y chromosomes

Church, George, 316, 317, 318

Churchill, Winston, 20–21, 105

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS; Mormon Church), 46

Family History Centers of, 115–16, 206

Jews and, 122, 123

proxy baptism in, 46, 113, 122–23

records kept by, 111–17, 122–24, 126

cigarette smoking, 254

Cincinnatus, Lucius Quinctius, 41

Civil War, 35, 47

class system, 46

Clement VI, Pope, 147

cloning, 7–8

Clovis culture, 250

colonial America, 37–41

colonialism, 71, 141, 143, 157, 255, 256

community closeness, 156

computers, 310

Concepcion, Maria, 288

Confucius, 32, 203, 221, 225

Conniff, Richard, 20–21

Consanguinity in Context
(Bittles), 302

convicts, 139–40

in Australia, 2, 17, 96–110, 135–38

Cooley, Robert, III, 228

Cooley-Quille, Michele, 228, 231

Coop, Graham, 213–14, 216–17, 220, 222

Crick, Francis, 161

crime, 107

Croatan, 271

Crohn’s disease, 254

cupules, 121

Cushman, Robert, 44

Cuyler, Theodore L., 159

Cyclone Heta, 117

cystic fibrosis, 302

Darwin, Charles, 53–54, 59, 60, 71, 101, 183, 303

descendants of, 183

Darwin, Chris, 183

deafness, 129

Declaration of Independence, 38, 41, 225

deCODEme, 316

Deegan, Michael, 2, 3, 96–98, 108–10

deer, 56

Denisovans, 254–55, 305

de novo point mutations, 304

diabetes, 254, 306, 308–9, 319

Dillon, Daniel, 27

Dillon, Jeremiah, 27

Dillon, Johanna, 27–28

Dillon, Julia, 27–28, 109

disabilities, 129

diseases, 161–62, 239, 260, 285, 296–312

Alzheimer’s disease, 308, 317

in Ashkenazis, 297–98, 300

beta thalassemia, 301

breast cancer, 305

cancer, 309

cystic fibrosis, 302

diabetes, 254, 306, 308–9, 319

Huntington’s disease, 286–95, 299, 306, 307, 308, 318

Melungeons and, 273

Mendelian,
see
Mendelian diseases

Neanderthal genome and, 254

in Samaritans, 296, 299–300

sickle-cell anemia, 302

Tay-Sachs disease, 297–99, 301

distrust, 143–46, 150–51

DNA, x–xi, 3, 6, 7, 9–11, 13–14, 21–22, 31, 81, 134, 135, 158, 178, 201, 203–24, 264, 311, 315–19

ancient, 252–53, 255

autosomal, 207, 210, 211, 213, 216, 257

blending of, 164

British history and, 172–75, 177

case-control studies of, 164

chunks of, 217

culture and, 179–202

as digital storage device, 319–20

discovery of structure of, 161

family similarity and, 280

and genetic tree vs. genealogical tree, 218–19

of Genghis Khan, 180–81

history in, 159–78

in Italy, 222

linkage disequilibrium and, 256

of MacLaren clan, 189–91

Melungeons and, 277

mitochondrial (mtDNA), 163, 186, 201, 206, 207, 216, 221, 253, 257

Neanderthal, 252–54

negative impacts of testing, 232–34, 242

noncoding, 13, 304

nonhuman, 255

in Norway, 203–6

as palimpsest, 264, 320

people’s responses to testing of, 242–44

politics of, 225–45

re-creating a lineage and, 214–16

shared ancestors and, 214, 218, 220–24

traits and,
see
traits

transmission over many generations, 213–18

DNA laboratory, 208

DNA testing (genetic genealogy) companies, 207–11, 213, 217, 232, 313

AncestryDNA.com, 207, 210, 212

deCODEme, 316

Family Tree DNA, 179, 182, 189–90, 207–12, 217, 232

Oxford Ancestors, 179–80, 182

23andMe, 207, 210, 212, 217, 306–7, 308, 310, 316–17

doctors, 51–52

documents,
see
records

Dodecad, 207

Doggerland, 168

Domesday Book, 118–20

Donnelly, Peter, 161–62, 164, 166, 167, 174–75

Dons, 160, 164

Dor Yeshorim, 300–301

Dromgoole, Will Allen, 270–71

drug reactions, 306

Duke, Marshall, 115

Dunham, Stanley Ann, 39, 122

Dyson, Esther, 317

earwax, 278

Eastern cultures, Western cultures compared with, 153–54

economies, 129

culture and, 157

history and, 156–57

slavery and, 142–43, 145

trust and, 144–45, 156

Ehrenreich, Eric, 66, 69, 71–74, 81–82, 149

Einheitsfamilienstammbuch,
66–67, 69,
73, 80

Elhaik, Eran, 239–42

Elizabeth II, Queen of England, 187

Ellis, Joseph J., 227

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 42, 158

end of history illusion, 29

England, surnames in, 192–99

epigenetics, 305

“Epilogue” (Lowell), 17

equality and egalitarianism, 46, 55

Equiano, Olaudah, 139, 140, 143

Erc, King, 187

Erlich, Yaniv, 131

ethnicity, 239

see also
race

eugenics, 54–55, 61–62, 64–65, 81–82, 113, 126, 238

Grant and, 59–61, 64, 75–76

marriage counseling and, 63, 65

in Nazi Germany, 71–73, 75–76,
80–82

Popenoe and, 62–64, 65

sterilization and, 64, 72, 75

Eugenics Records Office (ERO), 62, 64

Eugenics Society of America, 61

Europe, 96, 213–14, 219, 222, 249, 318

Native American genomes and, 249–50

evolution, 12, 53, 65, 70, 159, 259

eugenics and, 60

natural selection in, 258–59

eye color, 278, 285

Facebook, 127

facial characteristics, 279–81, 282–83

judgments about ancestry based on, 283–84

factor V, 306

Faerie Queene, The
(Spenser), 272–73

family history,
see
genealogy

Family History Centers, 115–16, 206

Family Search, 114–17

family-systems therapy, 138

Family Tree DNA, 179, 182, 189–90, 207–12, 217, 232

Family Trees: A History of Genealogy in America
(Weil), 39

famine, 158, 258, 305

in Ireland, 106, 107, 137, 257

Farmer, John, 44

farming,
see
agriculture

Faroe Islands, 318

Farrar, John, 39

Farrell, Elizabeth, 27–28

feelings,
see
ideas and feelings

Feldman, Marcus, 247, 248, 251, 255–57, 259, 295–97, 300, 303

Fergus Mor, King, 187

Fernandez, Raquel, 154–55, 157

Finding Your Roots,
211

Findlay, Cassandra, 130

FindMyPast, 81, 128–29

Fisher, Mary, 38

Fisher, R. A., 165

Fitter Family competitions, 61

flu, 260

Fogli, Alessandra, 154–55, 157

Fortune,
44

Foster, Eugene, 226–29, 231, 232

founder effect, 297, 301

Founders and Survivors, 135–38

Fowle, John, 37

Fox, Dixon Ryan, 45

fragile X syndrome, 300

France, 51

Frank, Anne, 122, 123

Franklin, Benjamin, 37–38, 184

Franklin, Robert, 38

Franklin, Rosalind, 161

Franklin, Thomas, 38, 184

Franklin, William, 184

French Canadians, 298

Galton, Francis, 54–55, 107, 234, 303

Garma festival, 281–82, 283

Gates, Bill, 7, 310

Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., 211, 282

Gausemeier, Bernd, 72

gay marriage, 123–24

gender inequality, 152–53, 154

Genealogical Register of the First Settlers of New England, A
(Farmer), 44

Genealogical Society of Utah, 46

genealogical tree, 220, 221

genetic tree vs., 218–19

genealogy(ies) (family history), 19–33, 69–71, 81–82, 108–9, 263

African, 32

Asian, 31–32, 243

biology connected to, 48

collective, 131–32

in colonial America, 37–41

counterfeit, 45

criticism of and aversion to, 19–23, 32–33, 41–45, 216, 219

heraldry and, 44–45