Read The Invisible Line Online
Authors: Daniel J. Sharfstein
The Invisible Line (55 page)
9
See Ira Berlin,
Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South
(New York: Random House, 1974); John Hope Franklin,
The Free Negro in North Carolina, 1790-1860
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1943, 1995); Eva Sheppard Wolf,
Race and Liberty in the New Nation: Emancipation in Virginia from the Revolution to Nat Turner's Rebellion
(Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006), p. 14; Barbara Jeanne Fields,
Slavery and Freedom on the Middle Ground: Maryland During the Nineteenth Century
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1985), pp. 1, 4-5.
See Ira Berlin,
Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South
(New York: Random House, 1974); John Hope Franklin,
The Free Negro in North Carolina, 1790-1860
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1943, 1995); Eva Sheppard Wolf,
Race and Liberty in the New Nation: Emancipation in Virginia from the Revolution to Nat Turner's Rebellion
(Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006), p. 14; Barbara Jeanne Fields,
Slavery and Freedom on the Middle Ground: Maryland During the Nineteenth Century
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1985), pp. 1, 4-5.
10
Ira Berlin has referred to this migration as the “Second Middle Passage” in
Generations of Captivity: A History of African-American Slaves
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003), pp. 161-230. See also Steven F. Miller, “Plantation Labor Organization and Slave Life on the Cotton Frontier: The Alabama-Mississippi Black Belt, 1815-1840,” in
Cultivation and Culture: Labor and the Shaping of Slave Life in the Americas
, ed. Ira Berlin and Philip D. Morgan (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1993), p. 155; Susan Eva O'Donovan,
Becoming Free in the Cotton South
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007), pp. 10-58.
Ira Berlin has referred to this migration as the “Second Middle Passage” in
Generations of Captivity: A History of African-American Slaves
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003), pp. 161-230. See also Steven F. Miller, “Plantation Labor Organization and Slave Life on the Cotton Frontier: The Alabama-Mississippi Black Belt, 1815-1840,” in
Cultivation and Culture: Labor and the Shaping of Slave Life in the Americas
, ed. Ira Berlin and Philip D. Morgan (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1993), p. 155; Susan Eva O'Donovan,
Becoming Free in the Cotton South
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007), pp. 10-58.
11
Berlin,
Slaves Without Masters
, pp. 188-91, 368-72; Wilentz,
Rise of American Democracy
, pp. 403, 451-52; Bertram Wyatt-Brown, “The Abolitionists' Postal Campaign of 1835,”
Journal of Negro History
50 (1965), pp. 227-38. In 1836 the House of Representatives responded to the overwhelming number of petitions by banning floor debates on them, a “gag rule” that lasted until 1844.
Berlin,
Slaves Without Masters
, pp. 188-91, 368-72; Wilentz,
Rise of American Democracy
, pp. 403, 451-52; Bertram Wyatt-Brown, “The Abolitionists' Postal Campaign of 1835,”
Journal of Negro History
50 (1965), pp. 227-38. In 1836 the House of Representatives responded to the overwhelming number of petitions by banning floor debates on them, a “gag rule” that lasted until 1844.
12
See, e.g., George M. Fredrickson,
The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914
(1971; New York: Harper and Row, 1987), pp. 43-96.
See, e.g., George M. Fredrickson,
The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914
(1971; New York: Harper and Row, 1987), pp. 43-96.
13
Early Accounts of Stephen Wall, Leak and Wall Papers.
Early Accounts of Stephen Wall, Leak and Wall Papers.
15
Early Accounts of Stephen Wall, Leak and Wall Papers; Berlin,
Generations of Captivity
, pp. 174-75.
Early Accounts of Stephen Wall, Leak and Wall Papers; Berlin,
Generations of Captivity
, pp. 174-75.
16
Early Accounts of Stephen Wall, Leak and Wall Papers. Gunter is likely Charles Grandison Gunter, who was originally from North Carolina and was married to a Richmond County woman. See Thomas McAdory Owen III,
History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography
(Chicago: S. J. Clarke, 1921), pp. 715-16. Gunter had a large plantation on Pintlala Creek ten miles west of Montgomery. According to the slave schedules for the 1850 U.S. Census, he owned eighty-one slaves, ages one to ninety. Instrumental in enacting Alabama's married women's property law, Gunter served as a captain in the Confederate army during the Civil War and afterward moved to Brazil rather than take an oath of allegiance to the Union. See also Miller, “Plantation Labor Organization,” p. 157; Wilentz,
Rise of American Democracy
, pp. 439-45; and Charles Sellers,
The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).
Early Accounts of Stephen Wall, Leak and Wall Papers. Gunter is likely Charles Grandison Gunter, who was originally from North Carolina and was married to a Richmond County woman. See Thomas McAdory Owen III,
History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography
(Chicago: S. J. Clarke, 1921), pp. 715-16. Gunter had a large plantation on Pintlala Creek ten miles west of Montgomery. According to the slave schedules for the 1850 U.S. Census, he owned eighty-one slaves, ages one to ninety. Instrumental in enacting Alabama's married women's property law, Gunter served as a captain in the Confederate army during the Civil War and afterward moved to Brazil rather than take an oath of allegiance to the Union. See also Miller, “Plantation Labor Organization,” p. 157; Wilentz,
Rise of American Democracy
, pp. 439-45; and Charles Sellers,
The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).
19
Berlin,
Generations of Captivity
, pp. 176-77, 188-93; William E. Wiethoff,
Crafting the Overseer's Image
(Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2006); William K. Scarborough,
The Overseer: Plantation Management in the Old South
(Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1966).
Berlin,
Generations of Captivity
, pp. 176-77, 188-93; William E. Wiethoff,
Crafting the Overseer's Image
(Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2006); William K. Scarborough,
The Overseer: Plantation Management in the Old South
(Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1966).
22
For details on a typical journey west, see Miller, “Plantation Labor Organization”; Berlin,
Generations of Captivity
.
For details on a typical journey west, see Miller, “Plantation Labor Organization”; Berlin,
Generations of Captivity
.
23
Will of Stephen Wall, June 23, 1845, North Carolina Office of Archives and History, Raleigh; “Friends in Indiana,”
Liberator
, November 30, 1838, p. 190.
Will of Stephen Wall, June 23, 1845, North Carolina Office of Archives and History, Raleigh; “Friends in Indiana,”
Liberator
, November 30, 1838, p. 190.
24
“Friends in Indiana,”
Liberator
, November 30, 1838, p. 190; John T. Plummer, “Suburban Geology, or Rocks, Soil, and Water, about Richmond, Wayne County, Indiana,”
American Journal of Science and the Arts
44 (1843), pp. 281, 283; Levi Coffin,
Reminiscences of Levi Coffin,
2nd ed. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1880), pp. 76-77, 106-07.
“Friends in Indiana,”
Liberator
, November 30, 1838, p. 190; John T. Plummer, “Suburban Geology, or Rocks, Soil, and Water, about Richmond, Wayne County, Indiana,”
American Journal of Science and the Arts
44 (1843), pp. 281, 283; Levi Coffin,
Reminiscences of Levi Coffin,
2nd ed. (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1880), pp. 76-77, 106-07.
25
“Friends in Indiana,”
Liberator
, November 30, 1838, p. 190;
The Discipline of the Society of Friends, of Indiana Yearly Meeting
(Cincinnati: A. Pugh, 1839), pp. 60-61.
“Friends in Indiana,”
Liberator
, November 30, 1838, p. 190;
The Discipline of the Society of Friends, of Indiana Yearly Meeting
(Cincinnati: A. Pugh, 1839), pp. 60-61.
26
Coffin,
Reminiscences
, pp. 106-10; Ryan P. Jordan,
Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma, 1820-1865
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), pp. 20, 48-49; “Friends in Indiana,”
Liberator
, November 30, 1838, p. 190;
Discipline of Society of Friends
.
Coffin,
Reminiscences
, pp. 106-10; Ryan P. Jordan,
Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma, 1820-1865
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), pp. 20, 48-49; “Friends in Indiana,”
Liberator
, November 30, 1838, p. 190;
Discipline of Society of Friends
.
28
Ibid.; see also 1840 U.S. Census, Kemper County, Miss.
Ibid.; see also 1840 U.S. Census, Kemper County, Miss.
29
Willard J. Wright, ed., “The Story of Warren County,” in
Memoirs of the Miami River Valley
, ed. John Calvin Hover et al. (Chicago: Robert O. Law Co., 1919), pp. 2:247, 420.
Willard J. Wright, ed., “The Story of Warren County,” in
Memoirs of the Miami River Valley
, ed. John Calvin Hover et al. (Chicago: Robert O. Law Co., 1919), pp. 2:247, 420.
30
A. W. Brayton, “A Sketch of the Life of the Late Dr. Thomas B. Harvey, of Indianapolis, Indiana,”
Medical Mirror
1 (1890), p. 76.
A. W. Brayton, “A Sketch of the Life of the Late Dr. Thomas B. Harvey, of Indianapolis, Indiana,”
Medical Mirror
1 (1890), p. 76.
32
Will of Stephen Wall, North Carolina State Archives.
Will of Stephen Wall, North Carolina State Archives.
33
Ibid.; Mial Wall to Caroline Wall, March 16, 1853, Langston Papers.
CHAPTER THREE: SPENCER: CLAY COUNTY, KENTUCKY, 1848Ibid.; Mial Wall to Caroline Wall, March 16, 1853, Langston Papers.
1
On use of the spring pole, see R. B. Woodworth, “The Evolution of Drilling Rigs,”
Bulletin of the American Institute of Mining Engineers
, November 1915, pp. 2247, 2250-55.
On use of the spring pole, see R. B. Woodworth, “The Evolution of Drilling Rigs,”
Bulletin of the American Institute of Mining Engineers
, November 1915, pp. 2247, 2250-55.
2
John Adams Bownocker, “Salt Deposits and the Salt Industry in Ohio,” in
Ohio Geological Survey
, 4th ser., bull. 8 (1906), p. 15; John F. Smith, “The Salt-Making Industry of Clay County, Kentucky,”
Filson Club History Quarterly
1 (1927), pp. 134, 136; John E. Stealey III,
The Antebellum Kanawha Salt Business and Western Markets
(Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993), p. 15; Augustus Beauchamp Northcote, “On the Brine-springs of Cheshire,”
London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science,
4th ser., vol. 14 (1857), pp. 457, 462; Dwight B. Billings and Kathleen M. Blee,
The Road to Poverty: The Making of Wealth and Hardship in Appalachia
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 61-78.
John Adams Bownocker, “Salt Deposits and the Salt Industry in Ohio,” in
Ohio Geological Survey
, 4th ser., bull. 8 (1906), p. 15; John F. Smith, “The Salt-Making Industry of Clay County, Kentucky,”
Filson Club History Quarterly
1 (1927), pp. 134, 136; John E. Stealey III,
The Antebellum Kanawha Salt Business and Western Markets
(Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993), p. 15; Augustus Beauchamp Northcote, “On the Brine-springs of Cheshire,”
London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science,
4th ser., vol. 14 (1857), pp. 457, 462; Dwight B. Billings and Kathleen M. Blee,
The Road to Poverty: The Making of Wealth and Hardship in Appalachia
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 61-78.
4
Ibid., p. 209.
Ibid., p. 209.
5
Ibid., p. 77. John F. Smith recalled, “Some years ago I talked with an ancient African whose task, when a young man, was to clean the furnaces at one of the principal works. He told me of the darkness, the cramped working space, the constant fear that he might get hung in a tight place”; in “Salt-Making Industry,” pp. 138-39.
Ibid., p. 77. John F. Smith recalled, “Some years ago I talked with an ancient African whose task, when a young man, was to clean the furnaces at one of the principal works. He told me of the darkness, the cramped working space, the constant fear that he might get hung in a tight place”; in “Salt-Making Industry,” pp. 138-39.
6
Stealey,
Antebellum Kanawha Salt Business
, pp. 142-44; Billings and Blee,
Road to Poverty
, pp. 210-11.
Stealey,
Antebellum Kanawha Salt Business
, pp. 142-44; Billings and Blee,
Road to Poverty
, pp. 210-11.
7
“Color in Kentucky is generally considered prima facie evidence of slavery”:
Commonwealth v. Johnson
, Mason Circuit Court, Order 32, p. 129 (October Term 1837), quoted in J. Winston Coleman,
Slavery Times in Kentucky
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1940), pp. 201, 205. On the lives of subsistence farmers in Clay County, see Billings and Blee,
Road to Poverty,
pp. 157-84.
“Color in Kentucky is generally considered prima facie evidence of slavery”:
Commonwealth v. Johnson
, Mason Circuit Court, Order 32, p. 129 (October Term 1837), quoted in J. Winston Coleman,
Slavery Times in Kentucky
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1940), pp. 201, 205. On the lives of subsistence farmers in Clay County, see Billings and Blee,
Road to Poverty,
pp. 157-84.
8
Deed Book 3, p. 20, Lee County, Va., quoted in Manuel Ray Spencer, comp.,
The Descendants of Joseph Spencer, 1735-1836
(self-published, 1996), pp. 7-8, 325. For a description of free blacks jailed or sold as slaves, see Coleman,
Slavery Times
, pp. 206-7. See also Billings and Blee,
Road to Poverty
, p. 211; and James B. Murphy, “Slavery and Freedom in Appalachia: Kentucky as a Demographic Case Study,”
Register of the Kentucky Historical Society
80 (1980), pp. 151, 162.
Deed Book 3, p. 20, Lee County, Va., quoted in Manuel Ray Spencer, comp.,
The Descendants of Joseph Spencer, 1735-1836
(self-published, 1996), pp. 7-8, 325. For a description of free blacks jailed or sold as slaves, see Coleman,
Slavery Times
, pp. 206-7. See also Billings and Blee,
Road to Poverty
, p. 211; and James B. Murphy, “Slavery and Freedom in Appalachia: Kentucky as a Demographic Case Study,”
Register of the Kentucky Historical Society
80 (1980), pp. 151, 162.
9
See Juliet E. K. Walker, “The Legal Status of Free Blacks in Kentucky, 1792-1825,”
Filson Club History Quarterly
57 (1983), pp. 382-95.
See Juliet E. K. Walker, “The Legal Status of Free Blacks in Kentucky, 1792-1825,”
Filson Club History Quarterly
57 (1983), pp. 382-95.
10
Winthrop Jordan,
White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968), pp. 544-45; Daniel J. Sharfstein, “Crossing the Color Line: Racial Migration and the One-Drop Rule, 1600-1860,”
Minnesota Law Review
91 (2007), pp. 592, 644.
Winthrop Jordan,
White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968), pp. 544-45; Daniel J. Sharfstein, “Crossing the Color Line: Racial Migration and the One-Drop Rule, 1600-1860,”
Minnesota Law Review
91 (2007), pp. 592, 644.
11
Walker, “Legal Status of Free Blacks.”
Walker, “Legal Status of Free Blacks.”
13
Ibid., pp. 213-14.
Ibid., pp. 213-14.
14
Spencer,
Descendants of Joseph Spencer
; see also Wilma A. Dunaway,
Slavery in the American Mountain South
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 60-62.
Spencer,
Descendants of Joseph Spencer
; see also Wilma A. Dunaway,
Slavery in the American Mountain South
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 60-62.
15
1820 U.S. Census, Clay County, Ky.; see also James S. Brown,
Beech Creek: A Study of a Kentucky Mountain Neighborhood
(1950; reprint Berea, Ky.: Berea College Press, 1988), pp. 5-6. Years later descendants of the family recalled leading similar lives. Freda Spencer Goble, interview by author, August 29, 2005, Paintsville, Ky.
1820 U.S. Census, Clay County, Ky.; see also James S. Brown,
Beech Creek: A Study of a Kentucky Mountain Neighborhood
(1950; reprint Berea, Ky.: Berea College Press, 1988), pp. 5-6. Years later descendants of the family recalled leading similar lives. Freda Spencer Goble, interview by author, August 29, 2005, Paintsville, Ky.
17
Ibid., p. 229.
Ibid., p. 229.
18
See George Spencer Death Certificate, April 1, 1912, Johnson County Death Certificate No. 10477, Kentucky Bureau of Vital Statistics,
Ancestry.com
; Lydia Margaret Ratliff Death Certificate, September 1, 1938, Johnson County Death Certificate No. 20096, Kentucky Bureau of Vital Statistics;
Spencer v. Looney
(Va. 1912), No. 2012, Virginia State Law Library, Richmond, trial transcript, pp. 61, 66, 73, 77, 81; Goble interview.
See George Spencer Death Certificate, April 1, 1912, Johnson County Death Certificate No. 10477, Kentucky Bureau of Vital Statistics,
Ancestry.com
; Lydia Margaret Ratliff Death Certificate, September 1, 1938, Johnson County Death Certificate No. 20096, Kentucky Bureau of Vital Statistics;
Spencer v. Looney
(Va. 1912), No. 2012, Virginia State Law Library, Richmond, trial transcript, pp. 61, 66, 73, 77, 81; Goble interview.
19
Acts Passed at the First Session of the Thirty-Fourth General Assembly for the Commonwealth of Kentucky
(Frankfort, Ky.: Holeman, 1825), chap. 146, pp. 137-38; and Walker, “Legal Status of Free Blacks,” p. 392. Victoria Bynum,
Unruly Women: The Politics of Social and Sexual Control in the Old South
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), pp. 99-103; Bynum describes how North Carolina courts' apprenticeship rulings “sometimes crippled the tenuous economic base of a fatherless or free black family” (p. 101) and how apprenticeship was “an instrument of racial control” (p. 99).
Acts Passed at the First Session of the Thirty-Fourth General Assembly for the Commonwealth of Kentucky
(Frankfort, Ky.: Holeman, 1825), chap. 146, pp. 137-38; and Walker, “Legal Status of Free Blacks,” p. 392. Victoria Bynum,
Unruly Women: The Politics of Social and Sexual Control in the Old South
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), pp. 99-103; Bynum describes how North Carolina courts' apprenticeship rulings “sometimes crippled the tenuous economic base of a fatherless or free black family” (p. 101) and how apprenticeship was “an instrument of racial control” (p. 99).
23
On Henderson, see 1840 U.S. Census, Rockcastle County, Ky.;
Kentucky State Register for the Year 1847
, ed. Taliaferro P. Shaffner (Louisville: Morton & Griswold, 1847), p. 15; An Act to Authorise the Establishment of a Library in Rockcastle County,
Acts Passed at the First Session of the Forty-First General Assembly for the Commonwealth of Kentucky
(183 3), c. 137, pp. 115-16.
On Henderson, see 1840 U.S. Census, Rockcastle County, Ky.;
Kentucky State Register for the Year 1847
, ed. Taliaferro P. Shaffner (Louisville: Morton & Griswold, 1847), p. 15; An Act to Authorise the Establishment of a Library in Rockcastle County,
Acts Passed at the First Session of the Forty-First General Assembly for the Commonwealth of Kentucky
(183 3), c. 137, pp. 115-16.
25
Ellen Churchill Semple, “The Anglo-Saxons of the Kentucky Mountains: A Study in Anthropogeography,”
Geographical Journal
17 (1901), pp. 588, 594, 596. See also Wilma A. Dunaway,
Women, Work, and Family in the Antebellum Mountain South
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 140-46.
Ellen Churchill Semple, “The Anglo-Saxons of the Kentucky Mountains: A Study in Anthropogeography,”
Geographical Journal
17 (1901), pp. 588, 594, 596. See also Wilma A. Dunaway,
Women, Work, and Family in the Antebellum Mountain South
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 140-46.
26
Semple, “Anglo-Saxons,” p. 591. Information on Clarissa Centers has been compiled online by a descendant at
http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~jude/index.htm
.
Semple, “Anglo-Saxons,” p. 591. Information on Clarissa Centers has been compiled online by a descendant at
http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~jude/index.htm
.
27
Contemporaneous accounts are quoted in John C. Campbell,
The Southern Highlander and His Homeland
(1921; reprint, Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1973), pp. 35, 47-48. On westward expansion generally, see D. W. Meinig,
The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History
, vol. 2,
Continental America, 1800-1867
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1993).
Contemporaneous accounts are quoted in John C. Campbell,
The Southern Highlander and His Homeland
(1921; reprint, Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1973), pp. 35, 47-48. On westward expansion generally, see D. W. Meinig,
The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History
, vol. 2,
Continental America, 1800-1867
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1993).
29
1850 U.S. Census, Clay County, Ky.
1850 U.S. Census, Clay County, Ky.
30
Billings and Blee,
Road to Poverty
, pp. 214-15; see also Martha Hodes,
White Women, Black Men: Illicit Sex in the 19th-Century South
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997), p. 4.
Billings and Blee,
Road to Poverty
, pp. 214-15; see also Martha Hodes,
White Women, Black Men: Illicit Sex in the 19th-Century South
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997), p. 4.
31
Hodes,
White Women, Black Men
, pp. 62-63. See also Amy Dru Stanley,
From Bondage to Contract: Wage Labor, Marriage, and the Market in the Age of Emancipation
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); and Billings and Blee,
Road to Poverty,
pp. 51-52.
Hodes,
White Women, Black Men
, pp. 62-63. See also Amy Dru Stanley,
From Bondage to Contract: Wage Labor, Marriage, and the Market in the Age of Emancipation
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); and Billings and Blee,
Road to Poverty,
pp. 51-52.
33
1850 U.S. Census, Clay County, Ky.; Semple, “Anglo-Saxons,” p. 594;
Spencer v. Looney,
trial transcript, p. 151.
1850 U.S. Census, Clay County, Ky.; Semple, “Anglo-Saxons,” p. 594;
Spencer v. Looney,
trial transcript, p. 151.
34
State v. Cantey
, 20 S.C.L. (2 Hill) 614 (S.C. Ct. App. 1835). On skin complexion in frontier America, see Conevery Bolton ValenÄius,
The Health of the Country: How American Settlers Understood Themselves and Their Land
(New York: Basic Books, 2002), pp. 230, 244; and Martha Hodes, “The Mercurial Nature and Abiding Power of Race: A Transnational Family Story,”
American Historical Review
108 (2003), pp. 84, 99.
State v. Cantey
, 20 S.C.L. (2 Hill) 614 (S.C. Ct. App. 1835). On skin complexion in frontier America, see Conevery Bolton ValenÄius,
The Health of the Country: How American Settlers Understood Themselves and Their Land
(New York: Basic Books, 2002), pp. 230, 244; and Martha Hodes, “The Mercurial Nature and Abiding Power of Race: A Transnational Family Story,”
American Historical Review
108 (2003), pp. 84, 99.
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