The New Jim Crow (48 page)
Authors: Michelle Alexander
23
Employers Group Research Services, “Employment of Ex-Offenders: A Survey of Employers' Policies and Practices,” San Francisco: SF Works, Apr. 12, 2002.
Employers Group Research Services, “Employment of Ex-Offenders: A Survey of Employers' Policies and Practices,” San Francisco: SF Works, Apr. 12, 2002.
24
Jeremy Travis, Amy Solomon, and Michelle Waul,
From Prison to Home: The Dimensions and Consequences of Prisoner Reentry
(Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 2001); and Amy Hirsch et al.,
Every Door Closed: Barriers Facing Parents with Criminal Records
(Washington, DC: Center for Law and Social Policy and Community Legal Services, 2002).
Jeremy Travis, Amy Solomon, and Michelle Waul,
From Prison to Home: The Dimensions and Consequences of Prisoner Reentry
(Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 2001); and Amy Hirsch et al.,
Every Door Closed: Barriers Facing Parents with Criminal Records
(Washington, DC: Center for Law and Social Policy and Community Legal Services, 2002).
25
Keith Ihlanfeldt and David Sjoquist, “The Spatial Mismatch Hypothesis: A Review of Recent Studies and Their Implications for Welfare Reform,”
Housing Policy Debate
9, no. 4 (1998): 849; and Michael Stoll, Harry Holzer, and Keith Ihlanfeldt, “Within Cities and Suburbs: Employment Decentralization, Neighborhood Composition, and Employment Opportunities for White and Minority Workers,”
Journal of Policy Analysis and Management
, Spring 2000.
Keith Ihlanfeldt and David Sjoquist, “The Spatial Mismatch Hypothesis: A Review of Recent Studies and Their Implications for Welfare Reform,”
Housing Policy Debate
9, no. 4 (1998): 849; and Michael Stoll, Harry Holzer, and Keith Ihlanfeldt, “Within Cities and Suburbs: Employment Decentralization, Neighborhood Composition, and Employment Opportunities for White and Minority Workers,”
Journal of Policy Analysis and Management
, Spring 2000.
26
Harry Holzer et al., “Employer Demand for Ex-Offenders: Recent Evidence from Los Angeles,” March 2003, unpublished manuscript.
Harry Holzer et al., “Employer Demand for Ex-Offenders: Recent Evidence from Los Angeles,” March 2003, unpublished manuscript.
28
Andrew Jacobs, “Crime-Ridden Newark Tries Getting Jobs for Ex-Convicts, but finds Success Elusive,”
New York Times
, Apr. 27, 2008.
Andrew Jacobs, “Crime-Ridden Newark Tries Getting Jobs for Ex-Convicts, but finds Success Elusive,”
New York Times
, Apr. 27, 2008.
30
Harry Holzer and Robert LaLonde, “Job Stability and Job Change Among Young Unskilled Workers,” in
Finding Jobs: Work and Welfare Reform
, ed. David Card and Rebecca Blank (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000); see also Joleen Kirshenman and Kathryn Neckerman, “We'd Love to Hire Them But . . .” in
The Urban Underclass
, ed. Christopher Jencks and Paul Peterson (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1991).
Harry Holzer and Robert LaLonde, “Job Stability and Job Change Among Young Unskilled Workers,” in
Finding Jobs: Work and Welfare Reform
, ed. David Card and Rebecca Blank (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000); see also Joleen Kirshenman and Kathryn Neckerman, “We'd Love to Hire Them But . . .” in
The Urban Underclass
, ed. Christopher Jencks and Paul Peterson (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1991).
31
Ibid., 942.
Ibid., 942.
32
Ibid., 962.
Ibid., 962.
34
Ibid., 91.
Ibid., 91.
35
See Devah Pager,
Marked: Race, Crime and Finding Work in an Era of Mass Incarceration
(University of Chicago Press, 2007), 157; Steven Raphael, “Should Criminal History Records Be Universally Available?” (reaction essay) in Greg Pogarsky, “Criminal Records, Employment and Recidivism,”
Criminology & Public Policy
5, no. 3 (Aug. 2006): 479-521; and Shawn Bushway, “Labor Market Effects of Permitting Employer Access to Criminal History Records,”
Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice
20 (2004): 276-91.
See Devah Pager,
Marked: Race, Crime and Finding Work in an Era of Mass Incarceration
(University of Chicago Press, 2007), 157; Steven Raphael, “Should Criminal History Records Be Universally Available?” (reaction essay) in Greg Pogarsky, “Criminal Records, Employment and Recidivism,”
Criminology & Public Policy
5, no. 3 (Aug. 2006): 479-521; and Shawn Bushway, “Labor Market Effects of Permitting Employer Access to Criminal History Records,”
Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice
20 (2004): 276-91.
36
Kirsten Livingston, “Making the Bad Guy Pay: Growing Use of Cost Shifting as Economic Sanction,” in
Prison Profiteers: Who Makes Money from Mass Incarceration
, ed. Tara Herivel and Paul Wright (New York: The New Press, 2007), 61.
Kirsten Livingston, “Making the Bad Guy Pay: Growing Use of Cost Shifting as Economic Sanction,” in
Prison Profiteers: Who Makes Money from Mass Incarceration
, ed. Tara Herivel and Paul Wright (New York: The New Press, 2007), 61.
37
Ibid., 69, citing Ohio Rev. Code Ann. Sec. 2951.021 and Ohio Rev. Code Sec. 2951.021.
Ibid., 69, citing Ohio Rev. Code Ann. Sec. 2951.021 and Ohio Rev. Code Sec. 2951.021.
40
Livingston, “Making the Bad Guy Pay,” 55.
Livingston, “Making the Bad Guy Pay,” 55.
41
Ibid.
Ibid.
42
Ryan S. King,
Felony Disenfranchisement Laws in the United States
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, Sept. 2008).
Ryan S. King,
Felony Disenfranchisement Laws in the United States
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, Sept. 2008).
43
American Civil Liberties Union,
Out of Step with the World: An Analysis of Felony Disenfranchisement in the U.S. and Other Democracies
(New York, May 2006), 4.
American Civil Liberties Union,
Out of Step with the World: An Analysis of Felony Disenfranchisement in the U.S. and Other Democracies
(New York, May 2006), 4.
44
Ibid.
Ibid.
45
Ibid., 6.
Ibid., 6.
46
See Laleh Ispahani and Nick Williams,
Purged!
(New York: American Civil Liberties Union, Oct. 2004); and Alec Ewald,
A Crazy Quilt of Tiny Pieces: State and Local Administration of American Criminal Disenfranchisement Law
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, Nov. 2005).
See Laleh Ispahani and Nick Williams,
Purged!
(New York: American Civil Liberties Union, Oct. 2004); and Alec Ewald,
A Crazy Quilt of Tiny Pieces: State and Local Administration of American Criminal Disenfranchisement Law
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, Nov. 2005).
47
Sasha Abramsky,
Conned: How Millions Went to Prison, Lost the Vote, and Helped Send George W. Bush to the White House
(New York: The New Press, 2006), 224.
Sasha Abramsky,
Conned: How Millions Went to Prison, Lost the Vote, and Helped Send George W. Bush to the White House
(New York: The New Press, 2006), 224.
48
Ibid.
Ibid.
49
Gail Russell Chaddock, “U.S. Notches World's Highest Incarceration Rate,”
Christian Science Monitor
, Aug. 18, 2003.
Gail Russell Chaddock, “U.S. Notches World's Highest Incarceration Rate,”
Christian Science Monitor
, Aug. 18, 2003.
51
Ibid., 207-8.
Ibid., 207-8.
52
Ibid.
Ibid.
53
Christopher Uggen and Jeff Manza, “Democratic Contraction? Political Consequences of Felon Disenfranchisement in the United States,”
American Sociological Review
67 (2002): 777.
Christopher Uggen and Jeff Manza, “Democratic Contraction? Political Consequences of Felon Disenfranchisement in the United States,”
American Sociological Review
67 (2002): 777.
56
See Kathryn Russell-Brown,
The Color of Crime: Racial Hoaxes, White Fear, Black Protectionism, Police Harassment, and Other Macroaggressions
(New York: New York University Press, 1998), coining the term
criminalblackman
.
See Kathryn Russell-Brown,
The Color of Crime: Racial Hoaxes, White Fear, Black Protectionism, Police Harassment, and Other Macroaggressions
(New York: New York University Press, 1998), coining the term
criminalblackman
.
58
Ibid., 152.
Ibid., 152.
60
Willie Thompson, interviewed by Guylando A. M. Moreno, Mar. 2008, Cincinnati, OH.
Willie Thompson, interviewed by Guylando A. M. Moreno, Mar. 2008, Cincinnati, OH.
62
Donald Braman,
Doing Time on the Outside: Incarceration and Family Life in Urban America
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004), 219.
Donald Braman,
Doing Time on the Outside: Incarceration and Family Life in Urban America
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004), 219.
63
Ibid., 3, citing data from D.C. Department of Corrections (2000).
Ibid., 3, citing data from D.C. Department of Corrections (2000).
64
See Todd Clear,
Imprisoning Communities: How Mass Incarceration Makes Disadvantaged Neighborhoods Worse
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 121-48.
See Todd Clear,
Imprisoning Communities: How Mass Incarceration Makes Disadvantaged Neighborhoods Worse
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 121-48.
65
See, e.g., Steve Liss,
No Place for Children: Voices from Juvenile Detention
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005). Stories include youth describing the verbal abuse they receive from their parents.
See, e.g., Steve Liss,
No Place for Children: Voices from Juvenile Detention
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005). Stories include youth describing the verbal abuse they receive from their parents.
67
Ibid., 219, fn. 2.
Ibid., 219, fn. 2.
68
See Deborah A. Prentice and Dale T. Miller, “Pluralistic Ignorance and Alcohol Use on Campus: Some Consequences of Misperceiving the Social Norm,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
64, no. 2 (1993): 243-56.
See Deborah A. Prentice and Dale T. Miller, “Pluralistic Ignorance and Alcohol Use on Campus: Some Consequences of Misperceiving the Social Norm,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
64, no. 2 (1993): 243-56.
70
Cathy Cohen,
The Boundaries of Blackness: AIDS and the Breakdown of Black Politics
(University of Chicago Press, 1999), 287.
Cathy Cohen,
The Boundaries of Blackness: AIDS and the Breakdown of Black Politics
(University of Chicago Press, 1999), 287.
72
Ibid., 184.
Ibid., 184.
73
Ibid., 185.
Ibid., 185.
74
Ibid., 186.
Ibid., 186.
75
Ibid.
Ibid.
76
Gerald Sider, “Against Experience: The Struggles for History, Tradition, and Hope Among a Native American People,” in
Between History and Histories
, ed. Gerald Sider and Gavin Smith (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997), 74-75.
Gerald Sider, “Against Experience: The Struggles for History, Tradition, and Hope Among a Native American People,” in
Between History and Histories
, ed. Gerald Sider and Gavin Smith (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997), 74-75.
78
Ibid.
Ibid.
79
James Thomas Sears,
Growing Up Gay in the South: Race, Gender, and Journeys of the Spirit
(New York: Routledge, 1991), 257.
James Thomas Sears,
Growing Up Gay in the South: Race, Gender, and Journeys of the Spirit
(New York: Routledge, 1991), 257.
80
Victor M. Rios, “The Hyper-Criminalization of Black and Latino Male Youth in the Era of Mass Incarceration,” unpublished manuscript on file with author.
Victor M. Rios, “The Hyper-Criminalization of Black and Latino Male Youth in the Era of Mass Incarceration,” unpublished manuscript on file with author.
81
Robert Toll,
Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth- Century America
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 227.
Robert Toll,
Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth- Century America
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 227.
82
Ibid., 258.
Ibid., 258.
83
Mel Watkins,
On the Real Side: Laughing, Lying and Signifying: The Underground Tradition of African-American Humor That Transformed American Culture, from Slavery to Richard Pryor
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), 124-29.
Chapter 5: The New Jim CrowMel Watkins,
On the Real Side: Laughing, Lying and Signifying: The Underground Tradition of African-American Humor That Transformed American Culture, from Slavery to Richard Pryor
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), 124-29.
3
See Jonathan Tilove, “Where Have All the Men Gone? Black Gender Gap Is Widening,”
Seattle Times
, May 5, 2005; and Jonathan Tilove, “Where Have All the Black Men Gone?”
Star-Ledger
(Newark), May 8, 2005.
See Jonathan Tilove, “Where Have All the Men Gone? Black Gender Gap Is Widening,”
Seattle Times
, May 5, 2005; and Jonathan Tilove, “Where Have All the Black Men Gone?”
Star-Ledger
(Newark), May 8, 2005.
4
Ibid.
Ibid.
7
One in eleven black adults was under correctional supervision at year end 2007, or approximately 3.5 million people. See Pew Center on the States,
One in 31: The Long Reach of American Corrections
(Washington, DC: Pew Charitable Trusts, Mar. 2009). According to the 1850 Census, approximately 3.2 million black people were slaves.
One in eleven black adults was under correctional supervision at year end 2007, or approximately 3.5 million people. See Pew Center on the States,
One in 31: The Long Reach of American Corrections
(Washington, DC: Pew Charitable Trusts, Mar. 2009). According to the 1850 Census, approximately 3.2 million black people were slaves.
8
See Andrew J. Cherlin,
Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage
, rev. ed., (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 110.
See Andrew J. Cherlin,
Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage
, rev. ed., (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 110.
9
See Glenn C. Loury,
Race, Incarceration, and American Values
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008), commentary by Pam Karlan.
See Glenn C. Loury,
Race, Incarceration, and American Values
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008), commentary by Pam Karlan.
10
Stanley Cohen,
States of Denial: Knowing About Atrocities and Suffering
(Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2001), 4-5.
Stanley Cohen,
States of Denial: Knowing About Atrocities and Suffering
(Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2001), 4-5.
13
See Marc Mauer and Meda Chesney-Lind, eds.,
Invisible Punishment: The Collateral Consequences of Mass Imprisonment
(New York: The New Press, 2002); and Jeremy Travis,
But They All Come Back: Facing the Challenges of Prisoner Reentry
(Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 2005).
See Marc Mauer and Meda Chesney-Lind, eds.,
Invisible Punishment: The Collateral Consequences of Mass Imprisonment
(New York: The New Press, 2002); and Jeremy Travis,
But They All Come Back: Facing the Challenges of Prisoner Reentry
(Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 2005).
14
Negley K. Teeters and John D. Shearer,
The Prison at Philadelphia, Cherry Hill: The Separate System of Prison Discipline, 1829-1913
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1957), 84.
Negley K. Teeters and John D. Shearer,
The Prison at Philadelphia, Cherry Hill: The Separate System of Prison Discipline, 1829-1913
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1957), 84.
15
See David Musto,
The American Disease: Origins of Narcotics Control
(New York: Oxford University Press, 3rd ed., 1999), 4, 7, 43-44, 219-20, describing the role of racial bias in earlier drug wars; and Doris Marie Provine,
Unequal Under Law: Race in the War on Drugs
(University of Chicago Press, 2007), 37-90, describing racial bias in alcohol prohibition, as well as other drug wars.
See David Musto,
The American Disease: Origins of Narcotics Control
(New York: Oxford University Press, 3rd ed., 1999), 4, 7, 43-44, 219-20, describing the role of racial bias in earlier drug wars; and Doris Marie Provine,
Unequal Under Law: Race in the War on Drugs
(University of Chicago Press, 2007), 37-90, describing racial bias in alcohol prohibition, as well as other drug wars.
16
Mary Pattillo, David F. Weiman, and Bruce Western,
Imprisoning America: The Social Effect of Mass Incarceration
(New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004), 2.
Mary Pattillo, David F. Weiman, and Bruce Western,
Imprisoning America: The Social Effect of Mass Incarceration
(New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004), 2.
17
Paul Street,
The Vicious Circle: Race, Prison, Jobs, and Community in Chicago, Illinois, and the Nation
(Chicago Urban League, Department of Research and Planning, 2002).
Paul Street,
The Vicious Circle: Race, Prison, Jobs, and Community in Chicago, Illinois, and the Nation
(Chicago Urban League, Department of Research and Planning, 2002).
20
Ibid.
Ibid.
22
Donald G. Lubin et al.,
Chicago Metropolis 2020: 2006 Crime and Justice Index
, (Washington, DC: Pew Center on the States, 2006), 5,
www.pewcenteronthestates.org/report_detail.aspx?id=33022
.
Donald G. Lubin et al.,
Chicago Metropolis 2020: 2006 Crime and Justice Index
, (Washington, DC: Pew Center on the States, 2006), 5,
www.pewcenteronthestates.org/report_detail.aspx?id=33022
.
23
Ibid., 37.
Ibid., 37.
24
Ibid., 35.
Ibid., 35.
25
Ibid., 3; see also Bruce Western,
Punishment and Inequality in America
(New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006), 12.
Ibid., 3; see also Bruce Western,
Punishment and Inequality in America
(New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006), 12.
27
Ibid.
Ibid.
28
Ibid.
Ibid.
29
See chapter 1, page 61, which describes the view that President Ronald Reagan's appeal derived primarily from the “emotional distress of those who fear or resent the Negro, and who expect Reagan somehow to keep him âin his place' or at least echo their own anger and frustration.”
See chapter 1, page 61, which describes the view that President Ronald Reagan's appeal derived primarily from the “emotional distress of those who fear or resent the Negro, and who expect Reagan somehow to keep him âin his place' or at least echo their own anger and frustration.”
30
For an excellent discussion of the history of felon disenfranchisement laws, as well as their modern day impact, see Jeff Manza and Christopher Uggen,
Locked
Out: Felon Disenfranchisement and American Democracy
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).
For an excellent discussion of the history of felon disenfranchisement laws, as well as their modern day impact, see Jeff Manza and Christopher Uggen,
Locked
Out: Felon Disenfranchisement and American Democracy
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).
31
Cotton v. Fordice
, 157 F.3d 388, 391 (5th Cir. 1998); see also Martine J. Price, Note and Comment: Addressing Ex-Felon Disenfranchisement: Legislation v. Litigation,
Brooklyn Journal of Law and Policy
11 (2002): 369, 382-83.
Cotton v. Fordice
, 157 F.3d 388, 391 (5th Cir. 1998); see also Martine J. Price, Note and Comment: Addressing Ex-Felon Disenfranchisement: Legislation v. Litigation,
Brooklyn Journal of Law and Policy
11 (2002): 369, 382-83.
32
See Jamie Fellner and Marc Mauer,
Losing the Vote: The Impact of Felony Disenfranchisement Laws in the United States
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, 1998).
See Jamie Fellner and Marc Mauer,
Losing the Vote: The Impact of Felony Disenfranchisement Laws in the United States
(Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, 1998).
34
See Eric Lotke and Peter Wagner, “Prisoners of the Census: Electoral and Financial Consequences of Counting Prisoners Where They Go, Not Where They Come From,”
Pace Law Review
24 (2004): 587, available at
www.prisonpolicy.org/pace.pdf
.
See Eric Lotke and Peter Wagner, “Prisoners of the Census: Electoral and Financial Consequences of Counting Prisoners Where They Go, Not Where They Come From,”
Pace Law Review
24 (2004): 587, available at
www.prisonpolicy.org/pace.pdf
.
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