The Price of Altruism (58 page)

42.
Emerson, “The Biological Basis of Social Cooperation,” 17–18, quoted in Mitman,
A State of Nature
, 160.

43.
For a recent biography see Lanny Ebenstein,
Milton Friedman
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).

44.
Milton Friedman,
Capitalism and Freedom
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962; reprint, 2002), xi.

45.
This was the title of a book by the Austrian-born economist Friedrich Hayek, a friend of Friedman’s, and, beginning in 1950, a colleague at Chicago. See Friedrich Hayek,
The Road to Serfdom
.
Fiftieth Anniversary Edition
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).

46.
Quoted in Friedman,
Capitalism and Freedom
, 26.

47.
Ibid., 2.

48.
Mitman,
A State of Nature
, 109.

49.
Allee worked on the endocrinology of the pecking order. See W. C. Allee, N. E. Collias, and Catherine Z. Lutherman, “Modification of the Social Order in Flocks of Hens by the Injection of Testosterone Proprionate,”
Physiological Zoology
12 (1939), 412–40; W. C. Allee and N. E. Collias, “The Effect of Estradiol on the Social Organization of Flocks of Hens,”
Endocrinology
27 (1940), 87–94; W. C. Allee, N. E. Collias, and Elizabeth Beeman, “The Effect of Thyroxin on the Social Order in Flocks of Hens,”
Endocrinology
27 (1940), 827–35; Benson Ginsburg and W. C. Allee, “Some Effects of Conditioning on Social Dominance and Subordination in Inbred Strains of Mice,”
Physiological Zoology
15 (1942), 485–506.

50.
A. M. Guhl and W. C. Allee, “Some Measurable Effects of Social Organization in Flocks of Hens,”
Physiological Zoology
17 (1944), 320–47.

51.
Warder Clyde Allee, “Biology and International Relations,”
New Republic
112 (1945), 816.

52.
Mitman,
A State of Nature
, 184.

53.
Warder Clyde Allee,
The Social Life of Animals
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1938); “Where Angels Fear to Tread: A Contribution from General Sociology to Human Ethics,”
Science
97 (1943), 517–25; Mitman,
A State of Nature
, 178–201.

54.
Poundstone,
Prisoner’s Dilemma
, 83–99.

55.
Sylvia Nasar,
A Beautiful Mind
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998), 104–14, quote on 104

56.
In fact, the earliest use of game theory in World War II by the United States involved designing antisubmarine tactics against the Germans. Mathematicians at the Anti-Submarine Warfare Operation Evaluation Group were said to carry around copies of Neumann’s 1928 paper on poker.

57.
Poundstone,
Prisoner’s Dilemma
, 68.

58.
Ibid., 118.

59.
John Nash’s “Equilibrium Points in N-Person Games,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA
36 (1950), 48–49, had been the original spur to the prisoner’s dilemma, since Nash’s optimal solutions were not satisfied in it. Flood and Dresher themselves now believe that the prisoner’s dilemma will never be “solved,” and nearly all game theorists agree. On Nash’s incredible story see Nasar,
A Beautiful Mind
.

60.
Dugatkin,
The Altruism Equation
, 59. Allee was, however, a highly respected scientist and was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1951.

61.
Ibid., 60.

62.
Poundstone,
Prisoner’s Dilemma
, 191.

63.
Even former RANDers Luce and Raiffa concluded in 1957 that most social scientists were disillusioned with game theory. R. Duncan Luce and Howard Raiffa,
Games and Decisions
(New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1957).

64.
Poundstone
, 193–94; George Orwell, “As I Please,”
Tribune
, 30 June, 1944, in George Orwell,
The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters: Volume 3
(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), 20.8

CHAPTER 6: HUSTLING

1.
“Results of Psychical Research,”
New York Times
, September 4, 1892.

2.
Seymour Mauskopf, ed.,
The Reception of Unconventional Science by the Scientific Community
(Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1979); Joseph Rhine letters to George Price, April 13, 1971, and May 18, 1972, GPP.

3.
Seymour Mauskopf and Michael R. McVaugh,
The Elusive Science: Origins of Experimental Psychical Research, 1915–1940
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1980).

4.
Samuel George Soal, “Fresh Light on Card Guessing,”
Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research
46 (1940), 152; Joseph B. Rhine,
New Frontiers of the Mind
(New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1937).

5.
Alice Avery Price letters to herself from W. E. Price, April–May 1946, June 25 1950, EPFA.

6.
George Price letter to Bob and Marjorie Sheffield, December 1, 1953, GPP; George Price letter to Henry Noel, February 1, 1953, GPP.

7.
George Price, “Science and the Supernatural,”
Science
122 (1955), 359–67, quote on 360; George Price correspondence with Joseph Rhine, February 25 and March 15, 1941, GPP.

8.
Ibid., 367, 363.

9.
Aldous Huxley, “Facts and Fetishes,”
Esquire
, September 1955, 43–44, 115–16, quote on 43; George Price, “Science and the Supernatural,”
Science
122 (August 26, 1955), 359–67.

10.
Anthony Arthur,
Radical Innocent: Upton Sinclair
(New York: Random House, 2006), 43; Upton Sinclair letter to George Price, August 5, 1956, GPP. Einstein had become friendly with Sinclair via correspondence over social issues, and even attended a séance in his home in California in 1930. When Mrs. Sinclair challenged his views about telepathy, Einstein’s wife, Elsa, chided her for her presumption, saying, “You know my husband has the greatest mind in the world.” Mrs. Sinclair responded: “Yes, I know, but surely he doesn’t know everything.” Einstein remained amused and wrote the preface out of friendship rather than belief, a fact that did not disturb Sinclair’s overwhelming pride. See Walter Isaacson,
Einstein: His Life and Universe
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007), 373–74.

11.
New York Times
, August 27, 1955. A further article in the
Times
, “Scientists Debate 6th Sense of Man,” appeared on January 8, 1956; Reverend Norman Boswell letter to George Price, January 15, 1956, GPP; C. H. Chalmers letter to George Price, October 28, 1955, and George’s reply, February 2, 1956, GPP; Fern Irene Clarke letter to George Price, September 5, 1955, and George’s reply, October 27, 1955, GPP; Lin Cutler letter to George Price, January 13, 1956, GPP.

12.
Science
123 (1956), 7–19, quotes on 8, 9, 15, 13, 11.

13.
Ibid., 16.

14.
George Price, “Where Is the Definitive Argument?”
Science
123 (1956), 17–18.

15.
Joan Cook, “John Scarne, Gambling Expert,”
New York Times
, July 9, 1985; George Price correspondence with Dr. George K. Bennett and Dr. J. Ricardo Musso, July–December 1956, GPP; George Price letter to Dr. Keith S. Ditman, November 14, 1964, GPP.

16.
Claude Shannon letter to George Price, January 31, 1955, GPP. Scarne later became the technical adviser on the motion picture
The Sting
and his hands doubled for Paul Newman’s during the deck-switching scenes. See John Scarne,
The Odds Against Me
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1966).

17.
George Price letter to Al Somit, October 23, 1955, GPP.

18.
Gaddis,
The Cold War
, 163, 123.

19.
George Price, “Does Poverty Really Lead to Communism: Outline,” circa 1953, GPP.

20.
George R. Price, “Altman’s Theory of Economic Cycles,”
Science
117 (1953), 335–36, quotes on 336; George T. Altman, “Cycles in Economics in Nature,”
Science
115 (1952), 51.

21.
George R. Price, “How to Speed Up Invention,”
Fortune
, November 1956, 150–53 and 218–28, quote on 223.

22.
Ibid., 228; George Price letter to Dr. Gilfillan, July 1, 1972, GPP.

23.
George R. Price, “Arguing the Case for Being Panicky,”
Life
, November 18, 1957, 125–28, quotes on 125.

24.
Ibid., 127, 128.

25.
Hubert Humphrey letter to George Price, January 29, 1957, GPP; “Scientist’s Answer to Lagging Research: A Machine That Will Help Invent Machines” and “Researcher Devotes His Life to Science,”
Minneapolis Sunday Tribune
, January 20, 1957; George Price letters to Martin Kessler, October 2 and 29, 1955, GPP; George Price letter to Al Somit, March 8, 1956, GPP.

26.
“Emanuel Piore, 91, Leader and Researcher at IBM,”
New York Times
, May 12, 2000.

27.
George Price letter to E. R. Piore, August 12, 1957, GPP; George Price letter to Dr. Gilfillan, July 1, 1972, GPP.

28.
Interviews with Kathleen Price, April 12 and 13, 2008.

29.
Correspondence between George Price and the Law Offices of William R. Lieberman, July 25, 1957, and September 28, 1957, the British Library George Price Collection (BLGPC), KPX1_2.3 and KPX1_7.5.

CHAPTER 7: SOLUTIONS

1.
Kohn,
A Reason for Everything
, 227.

2.
John Maynard Smith, “In Haldane’s Footsteps,” in
Leaders in the Study of Animal Behavior
, ed. Donald A. Dewsbury (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press), 347–54, quote on 348.

3.
Quoted in Kohn,
A Reason for Everything
, 212.

4.
Ibid., 211.

5.
Vero C. Wynne-Edwards, “Backstage and Upstage with ‘Animal Dispersion,’” in
Leaders in the Study of Animal Behavior
, 487–512, quotes on 488, 489.

6.
Charles Elton, “Periodic Fluctuations in the Numbers of Animals: Their Causes and Effects,”
British Journal of Experimental Biology
2 (1924), 119–63.