Authors: Marcus Rediker
The Slave Ship (59 page)
48
Petitions of Seamen, 1765-1774 and “Accounts of money for the relief of seamen and those disabled in the Merchant Service” (1747-1787), both in Society of Merchant Venturers Archive, Bristol Record Office. The Venturers traded to many parts of the world, and offered charity to their sailors regardless of route. The examples are sailors who worked in the slave trade. Their health was apparently worse than that of seamen who worked in other trades. See also Jonathan Press,
The Merchant Seamen of Bristol, 1747
-
1789
(Bristol, 1976).
Petitions of Seamen, 1765-1774 and “Accounts of money for the relief of seamen and those disabled in the Merchant Service” (1747-1787), both in Society of Merchant Venturers Archive, Bristol Record Office. The Venturers traded to many parts of the world, and offered charity to their sailors regardless of route. The examples are sailors who worked in the slave trade. Their health was apparently worse than that of seamen who worked in other trades. See also Jonathan Press,
The Merchant Seamen of Bristol, 1747
-
1789
(Bristol, 1976).
49
An Account of the Life,
26; Wells, “Journal of a Voyage,” f. 19; Interview of Ellison,
Substance,
40.
An Account of the Life,
26; Wells, “Journal of a Voyage,” f. 19; Interview of Ellison,
Substance,
40.
50
“Voyage to Guinea, Antego, Bay of Campeachy, Cuba, Barbadoes, &c.” (1714-1723), Add. Ms. 39946, BL, ff. 12-13; Robinson,
A Sailor Boy’s Experience,
97.
“Voyage to Guinea, Antego, Bay of Campeachy, Cuba, Barbadoes, &c.” (1714-1723), Add. Ms. 39946, BL, ff. 12-13; Robinson,
A Sailor Boy’s Experience,
97.
52
“Inventory of the Cloths belonging to George Glover taken at his disease [decease] by Thos. Postlethwayt on board the Essex the 12 day of Novr 1783 viz and Sould,” in “Wage Book for the Voyage of the Ship
Essex
from Liverpool to Africa and the West Indies, Captain Peter Potter,” 1783-1784, William Davenport Archives, Maritime Archives & Library, D/DAV/3/5, MMM. See similar listings in the wage book for the
Essex
on its next voyage, 1785-86, in D/DAV/3/6. See
TSTD,
#81311, #81312.
“Inventory of the Cloths belonging to George Glover taken at his disease [decease] by Thos. Postlethwayt on board the Essex the 12 day of Novr 1783 viz and Sould,” in “Wage Book for the Voyage of the Ship
Essex
from Liverpool to Africa and the West Indies, Captain Peter Potter,” 1783-1784, William Davenport Archives, Maritime Archives & Library, D/DAV/3/5, MMM. See similar listings in the wage book for the
Essex
on its next voyage, 1785-86, in D/DAV/3/6. See
TSTD,
#81311, #81312.
53
The
Times,
March 15, 1788. For examples of the dead list, one kept by a surgeon, the other by a captain, see James Hoskins, “List of Mortality of the Ship’s Company,” 1792-1793, “Certificates of Slaves Taken Aboard Ships,” 1794, HL/PO/JO/10/7/982, HLRO, Westminster; Peter Potter to William Davenport, February 21, 1784, Letters from Captain Peter Potter to William Davenport & Co., 1783-1784, D/DAV/13/1/3, MMM.
The
Times,
March 15, 1788. For examples of the dead list, one kept by a surgeon, the other by a captain, see James Hoskins, “List of Mortality of the Ship’s Company,” 1792-1793, “Certificates of Slaves Taken Aboard Ships,” 1794, HL/PO/JO/10/7/982, HLRO, Westminster; Peter Potter to William Davenport, February 21, 1784, Letters from Captain Peter Potter to William Davenport & Co., 1783-1784, D/DAV/13/1/3, MMM.
54
This section draws upon the Information of Thomas Sanderson and William Steele (1750), HCA 1/58, ff. 1-10. The outcome of the case is unknown, but executions of the mutineers would not have been unlikely. See
TSTD,
#17198.
This section draws upon the Information of Thomas Sanderson and William Steele (1750), HCA 1/58, ff. 1-10. The outcome of the case is unknown, but executions of the mutineers would not have been unlikely. See
TSTD,
#17198.
55
Sanderson had been sued a few years earlier, while working as a mate in the slave trade, for beating a sailor with a two-inch rope. See
Thomas Powell v. Eustace Hardwicke,
1739, HCA 24/139.
Sanderson had been sued a few years earlier, while working as a mate in the slave trade, for beating a sailor with a two-inch rope. See
Thomas Powell v. Eustace Hardwicke,
1739, HCA 24/139.
56
Mutineers sometimes sent the captain and other officers ashore, as the men of the
Antelope
did. A few put them in the ship’s boat on the high seas (which meant almost-certain death), and a substantial minority killed one or more outright. The observations in this section are based on a sample of thirty-seven mutinies that took place between 1719 and 1802.
Mutineers sometimes sent the captain and other officers ashore, as the men of the
Antelope
did. A few put them in the ship’s boat on the high seas (which meant almost-certain death), and a substantial minority killed one or more outright. The observations in this section are based on a sample of thirty-seven mutinies that took place between 1719 and 1802.
58
Information of John Bicknor, Meeting of the Grand Court of Jamaica, January 19, 1720, HCA 137/14, f. 9. This voyage of the
Abington
is not listed in the
TSTD
but the following one is. See #16257.
Information of John Bicknor, Meeting of the Grand Court of Jamaica, January 19, 1720, HCA 137/14, f. 9. This voyage of the
Abington
is not listed in the
TSTD
but the following one is. See #16257.
59
Examination of Thomas Williams (1734), HCA 1/56, f. 90;
Powell v. Hardwicke
(1738), HCA 24/139. The first report of the mutiny aboard the
Buxton
appeared in the
American Weekly Mercury
on September 26, 1734. See also
Boston News-Letter,
October 31, 1734. See also
TSTD,
#16758, and for the
Pearl Galley,
#16870. For an account of multiple ax killings aboard the
William
of Bristol in 1767, see
Boston News-Letter and New-England Chronicle
, April 10, 1767. See
TSTD,
#17634.
Examination of Thomas Williams (1734), HCA 1/56, f. 90;
Powell v. Hardwicke
(1738), HCA 24/139. The first report of the mutiny aboard the
Buxton
appeared in the
American Weekly Mercury
on September 26, 1734. See also
Boston News-Letter,
October 31, 1734. See also
TSTD,
#16758, and for the
Pearl Galley,
#16870. For an account of multiple ax killings aboard the
William
of Bristol in 1767, see
Boston News-Letter and New-England Chronicle
, April 10, 1767. See
TSTD,
#17634.
60
On the
Tewkesbury,
see
The Tryals of Seven Pyrates, viz. James Sweetland, John Kennelly, John Reardon, James Burdet, William Buckley, Joseph Noble, and Samuel Rhodes, for the Murder of Capt. Edw. Bryan of the Tewksbury of Bristol; and Running Away with the said Ship, November 2, 1737
(Bristol, 1738);
Boston Gazette,
March 13, 1738; “Proceedings of a Court of Admiralty held at Cape Coast in Africa the 19th November 1737 for the Trials of James Sweetland and other for Murder & Piracy,” HCA 1/99, ff. 1-4. On other occasions, a captain or mate was killed by a sailor in a more-or-less spontaneous act of revenge, without a supporting bid to capture the ship. On the
Lovely Lass
of Bristol in 1792, “A black man, called
Joe or Cudjo,
together with
John Dickson
and
John Owens
” killed mate Robert Millagan. See the
Times,
November 8, 1794.
On the
Tewkesbury,
see
The Tryals of Seven Pyrates, viz. James Sweetland, John Kennelly, John Reardon, James Burdet, William Buckley, Joseph Noble, and Samuel Rhodes, for the Murder of Capt. Edw. Bryan of the Tewksbury of Bristol; and Running Away with the said Ship, November 2, 1737
(Bristol, 1738);
Boston Gazette,
March 13, 1738; “Proceedings of a Court of Admiralty held at Cape Coast in Africa the 19th November 1737 for the Trials of James Sweetland and other for Murder & Piracy,” HCA 1/99, ff. 1-4. On other occasions, a captain or mate was killed by a sailor in a more-or-less spontaneous act of revenge, without a supporting bid to capture the ship. On the
Lovely Lass
of Bristol in 1792, “A black man, called
Joe or Cudjo,
together with
John Dickson
and
John Owens
” killed mate Robert Millagan. See the
Times,
November 8, 1794.
61
Maryland Gazette and News Letter,
October 16, 1766, reprinted in Donnan II
,
528- 29;
Connecticut Journal,
November 17, 1769;
New London Gazette,
December 15, 1769. See
TSTD,
#17691 (
Black Prince
). For a mutiny in which sailors killed their captain and tried to blame his death on a slave insurrection, see
New-York Gazette,
March 11, 1765.
Maryland Gazette and News Letter,
October 16, 1766, reprinted in Donnan II
,
528- 29;
Connecticut Journal,
November 17, 1769;
New London Gazette,
December 15, 1769. See
TSTD,
#17691 (
Black Prince
). For a mutiny in which sailors killed their captain and tried to blame his death on a slave insurrection, see
New-York Gazette,
March 11, 1765.
62
Christopher,
Slave-Trade Sailors
, 127-32; Interview of James Towne,
Substance,
56; Information of Hector McNeal (November 1731), HCA 1/56, f. 44.
Christopher,
Slave-Trade Sailors
, 127-32; Interview of James Towne,
Substance,
56; Information of Hector McNeal (November 1731), HCA 1/56, f. 44.
63
Seamen sometimes deserted with a plan to recoup their wages, working “by the run” from a labor-scarce West Indian or American port back to England, at considerably higher wages. See Rediker,
Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea,
136-38.
Seamen sometimes deserted with a plan to recoup their wages, working “by the run” from a labor-scarce West Indian or American port back to England, at considerably higher wages. See Rediker,
Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea,
136-38.
64
Testimony of Lord Rodney, 1790,
HCSP,
72:182-83. For similar comments see Testimony of Sir George Young,
HCSP,
69:155; Testimony of Sir George Young, 1790,
HCSP,
73:211-12; Testimony of Thomas Clappeson, 1791,
HCSP
, 82:214.
Testimony of Lord Rodney, 1790,
HCSP,
72:182-83. For similar comments see Testimony of Sir George Young,
HCSP,
69:155; Testimony of Sir George Young, 1790,
HCSP,
73:211-12; Testimony of Thomas Clappeson, 1791,
HCSP
, 82:214.
65
Lord Sheffield,
Observations,
18; Captain Francis Pope to Abraham Redwood, Antigua, May 24, 1740, in Donnan III, 135; Miles Barber to James Penny, March 11, 1784,
Baillie v. Hartley,
exhibits regarding the Slave Ship Comte du Nord and Slave Trade, E 219/377, NA. See also Samuel and William Vernon to Captain John Duncan, Newport, April 8, 1771: “If you have more hands than is necessary and can discharge them upon good Terms its best to do it and avoid all expenses upon your Vessel that you can.” See Donnan III
,
248. For lawsuits brought by sailors dumped by slavers in the West Indies, see
Soudin v. Demmerez
(1720), HCA 24/133, and
Fernando v. Moore
(1733), HCA 24/138.
Lord Sheffield,
Observations,
18; Captain Francis Pope to Abraham Redwood, Antigua, May 24, 1740, in Donnan III, 135; Miles Barber to James Penny, March 11, 1784,
Baillie v. Hartley,
exhibits regarding the Slave Ship Comte du Nord and Slave Trade, E 219/377, NA. See also Samuel and William Vernon to Captain John Duncan, Newport, April 8, 1771: “If you have more hands than is necessary and can discharge them upon good Terms its best to do it and avoid all expenses upon your Vessel that you can.” See Donnan III
,
248. For lawsuits brought by sailors dumped by slavers in the West Indies, see
Soudin v. Demmerez
(1720), HCA 24/133, and
Fernando v. Moore
(1733), HCA 24/138.
66
Interview of Ellison,
Substance,
41; Interview of Towne,
Substance
, 60. See also William James, 1789,
HCSP,
68:139; Testimony of John Ashley Hall,
HCSP,
72:233; Testimony of James Morley,
HCSP,
73:164, 168.
Interview of Ellison,
Substance,
41; Interview of Towne,
Substance
, 60. See also William James, 1789,
HCSP,
68:139; Testimony of John Ashley Hall,
HCSP,
72:233; Testimony of James Morley,
HCSP,
73:164, 168.
67
Testimony of John Simpson,
HCSP,
82:44 (Barbados); Testimony of Robert Forster, 1791,
HCSP,
82:134 (Dominica, Grenada);
Connecticut Journal,
December 22, 1784 (Charleston); Hercules Ross, 1791,
HCSP,
82:260; and Testimony of Mark Cook, 1791,
HCSP,
82:199 (Jamaica).
Testimony of John Simpson,
HCSP,
82:44 (Barbados); Testimony of Robert Forster, 1791,
HCSP,
82:134 (Dominica, Grenada);
Connecticut Journal,
December 22, 1784 (Charleston); Hercules Ross, 1791,
HCSP,
82:260; and Testimony of Mark Cook, 1791,
HCSP,
82:199 (Jamaica).
69
The first study of the event was Brooke,
Liverpool as it was,
which usefully includes the London newspaper articles. The best study of the strike remains, after almost half a century, Rose, “A Liverpool Sailors’ Strike in the Eighteenth Century,” 85-92. The other owners of the
Derby
were John Yates, Sam Parker, and Thomas Dunn. See
TSTD,
#92523.
The first study of the event was Brooke,
Liverpool as it was,
which usefully includes the London newspaper articles. The best study of the strike remains, after almost half a century, Rose, “A Liverpool Sailors’ Strike in the Eighteenth Century,” 85-92. The other owners of the
Derby
were John Yates, Sam Parker, and Thomas Dunn. See
TSTD,
#92523.
70
This paragraph and the previous one draw upon two articles in London newspapers:
Gazetteer and New Daily Advertiser,
September 4, 1775, and
Morning Chronicle and London Advertiser
, September 4, 1775. Both Brooke and Rose (cited above) repeat the mistake that appeared in a couple of the newspaper articles that Yates was the captain of the
Derby
rather than one of its owners. Rose also says a sailors’ protest march took place on Saturday morning, August 26, but the preponderance of the evidence suggests that it took place on Monday.
This paragraph and the previous one draw upon two articles in London newspapers:
Gazetteer and New Daily Advertiser,
September 4, 1775, and
Morning Chronicle and London Advertiser
, September 4, 1775. Both Brooke and Rose (cited above) repeat the mistake that appeared in a couple of the newspaper articles that Yates was the captain of the
Derby
rather than one of its owners. Rose also says a sailors’ protest march took place on Saturday morning, August 26, but the preponderance of the evidence suggests that it took place on Monday.
72
Information of James Waring, September 4, 1775, Records of the County Palantine of Lancaster, PL 27/5, NA;
Morning Chronicle,
September 4, 1775. The information about Thomas Staniforth was collected as oral history from his son Samuel by Brooke; see
Liverpool as it was,
339.
Information of James Waring, September 4, 1775, Records of the County Palantine of Lancaster, PL 27/5, NA;
Morning Chronicle,
September 4, 1775. The information about Thomas Staniforth was collected as oral history from his son Samuel by Brooke; see
Liverpool as it was,
339.
73
The estimates of the number of cannon used by the sailors ranged from two to six.
The estimates of the number of cannon used by the sailors ranged from two to six.
74
Information of Richard Downward the Younger, September 2, 1775, PL27/5;
Gazetteer,
September 4 and 6, 1775. Whether these were sailors or people trying to defend the exchange, source does not say.
Information of Richard Downward the Younger, September 2, 1775, PL27/5;
Gazetteer,
September 4 and 6, 1775. Whether these were sailors or people trying to defend the exchange, source does not say.
75
Information of William Sefton, September 3, 1775, PL 27/5;
Morning Chronicle,
September 8, 1775;
Gazetteer,
September 8, 1775.
Information of William Sefton, September 3, 1775, PL 27/5;
Morning Chronicle,
September 8, 1775;
Gazetteer,
September 8, 1775.
76
Morning Chronicle,
September 8, 1775, and September 11, 1775;
Gazetteer and New Daily Advertiser,
September 6, 1775. Many years later Richard Brooke talked with someone who “had taken part in the attack on Mr. Radcliffe’s house.” This person told him of the discovery of the chaff, “which the lower classes used as a by-word against Mr. Radcliffe for a long period of time afterwards.” Mr. Radcliffe’s son later confirmed the story. See Brooke,
Liverpool as it was,
341.
Morning Chronicle,
September 8, 1775, and September 11, 1775;
Gazetteer and New Daily Advertiser,
September 6, 1775. Many years later Richard Brooke talked with someone who “had taken part in the attack on Mr. Radcliffe’s house.” This person told him of the discovery of the chaff, “which the lower classes used as a by-word against Mr. Radcliffe for a long period of time afterwards.” Mr. Radcliffe’s son later confirmed the story. See Brooke,
Liverpool as it was,
341.
77
Morning Chronicle,
September 4, 1775, September 8, 1775;
Gazetteer,
September 6, 1775; Information of John Huddleston, September 1, 1775, and Information of John Adams, September 2, 1775, PL 27/5; Brooke,
Liverpool as it was,
341. Gomer Williams,
History of the Liverpool Privateers and Letters of Marque: With An Account Of The Liverpool
Slave Trade, 1744
-
1812
(London, 1897; rpt. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2004), 557.
Morning Chronicle,
September 4, 1775, September 8, 1775;
Gazetteer,
September 6, 1775; Information of John Huddleston, September 1, 1775, and Information of John Adams, September 2, 1775, PL 27/5; Brooke,
Liverpool as it was,
341. Gomer Williams,
History of the Liverpool Privateers and Letters of Marque: With An Account Of The Liverpool
Slave Trade, 1744
-
1812
(London, 1897; rpt. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2004), 557.
78
Morning Chronicle,
September 4, 1775;
Daily Advertiser,
September 5, 1775; Information of Thomas Middleton, September 28, 1775, PL 27/5;
Chester Chronicle,
September 4, 1775.
Morning Chronicle,
September 4, 1775;
Daily Advertiser,
September 5, 1775; Information of Thomas Middleton, September 28, 1775, PL 27/5;
Chester Chronicle,
September 4, 1775.
79
Information of Thomas Blundell, September 2, 1775; Information of Anthony Taylor, September 2, 1775; Information of Henry Billinge, September 27, 1775, all in PL 27/5; the
Morning Chronicle
, September 8, 1775.
Information of Thomas Blundell, September 2, 1775; Information of Anthony Taylor, September 2, 1775; Information of Henry Billinge, September 27, 1775, all in PL 27/5; the
Morning Chronicle
, September 8, 1775.
80
Information of Cuthbert Bisbronney, September 2, 1775; Information of William Stanistreet, September 2, 1775.
Information of Cuthbert Bisbronney, September 2, 1775; Information of William Stanistreet, September 2, 1775.
81
Morning Chronicle,
September 11, 1775; Council Book of the Corporation, 1775, vol. 2, 717-18, cited by Brooke,
Liverpool as it was,
345.
Morning Chronicle,
September 11, 1775; Council Book of the Corporation, 1775, vol. 2, 717-18, cited by Brooke,
Liverpool as it was,
345.
83
Testimony of John Simpson, 1791,
HCSP,
82:42; Interview of George Millar,
Substance,
3; Testimony of Sir George Young,
HCSP,
73:136;
Three Years Adventures,
41; Robinson,
A Sailor Boy’s Experience,
56; Testimony of Richard Story, 1791,
HCSP,
82:13; Interview of Thompson,
Substance,
24. It was alleged in court in 1701 that John Babb allowed fellow sailors to take food from the slaves, after which many died. See
John Babb v. Bernard Chalkley
(1701), HCA 24/127.
Testimony of John Simpson, 1791,
HCSP,
82:42; Interview of George Millar,
Substance,
3; Testimony of Sir George Young,
HCSP,
73:136;
Three Years Adventures,
41; Robinson,
A Sailor Boy’s Experience,
56; Testimony of Richard Story, 1791,
HCSP,
82:13; Interview of Thompson,
Substance,
24. It was alleged in court in 1701 that John Babb allowed fellow sailors to take food from the slaves, after which many died. See
John Babb v. Bernard Chalkley
(1701), HCA 24/127.
84
The wage reduction in Liverpool in August 1775 was the second one in a short period of time. As recently as mid-June 1775, slave-trade sailors shipping out of Liverpool were still getting the customary rate of forty shillings per month. See “Wage Book for the voyage of the ship
Dalrymple
from Dominica to Liverpool, Patrick Fairweather, Master,” 1776, William Davenport Archives, Maritime Archives & Library, D/DAV/3/3, MMM. See also
TSTD,
#91988.
The wage reduction in Liverpool in August 1775 was the second one in a short period of time. As recently as mid-June 1775, slave-trade sailors shipping out of Liverpool were still getting the customary rate of forty shillings per month. See “Wage Book for the voyage of the ship
Dalrymple
from Dominica to Liverpool, Patrick Fairweather, Master,” 1776, William Davenport Archives, Maritime Archives & Library, D/DAV/3/3, MMM. See also
TSTD,
#91988.
2
William D. Piersen, “White Cannibals, Black Martyrs: Fear, Depression, and Religious Faith as Causes of Suicide Among New Slaves,”
Journal of Negro History
62 (1977), 147-59.
William D. Piersen, “White Cannibals, Black Martyrs: Fear, Depression, and Religious Faith as Causes of Suicide Among New Slaves,”
Journal of Negro History
62 (1977), 147-59.
3
Sidney W. Mintz and Richard Price,
The Birth of African-American Culture: An Anthropological Perspective
(orig. publ. 1976; rpt. Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); Michael A. Gomez,
Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Stephanie E. Smallwood,
Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006).
Sidney W. Mintz and Richard Price,
The Birth of African-American Culture: An Anthropological Perspective
(orig. publ. 1976; rpt. Boston: Beacon Press, 1992); Michael A. Gomez,
Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Stephanie E. Smallwood,
Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006).
4
Testimony of George Millar, 1790,
HCSP,
73:394; Testimony of William Littleton, 1789,
HCSP,
68:299; Samuel Robinson,
A Sailor Boy’s Experience aboard a Slave Ship in the Beginning of the Present Century
(orig. publ. Hamilton, Scotland: William Naismith, 1867; rpt. Wigtown, Scotland: G.C. Book Publishers Ltd., 1996), 55; John Atkins,
A Voyage to Guinea, Brasil, and the West Indies; In His Majesty’s Ships, the Swallow and Weymouth
(London, 1735; rpt. London: Frank Cass & Co., 1970), 180.
Testimony of George Millar, 1790,
HCSP,
73:394; Testimony of William Littleton, 1789,
HCSP,
68:299; Samuel Robinson,
A Sailor Boy’s Experience aboard a Slave Ship in the Beginning of the Present Century
(orig. publ. Hamilton, Scotland: William Naismith, 1867; rpt. Wigtown, Scotland: G.C. Book Publishers Ltd., 1996), 55; John Atkins,
A Voyage to Guinea, Brasil, and the West Indies; In His Majesty’s Ships, the Swallow and Weymouth
(London, 1735; rpt. London: Frank Cass & Co., 1970), 180.
5
Three Years Adventures,
84; John Matthews,
A Voyage to the River Sierra Leone, on the Coast of Africa, containing an Account of the Trade and Productions of the Country, and
of the Civil and Religious Customs and Manners of the People; in a Series of Letters to a Friend in England
(London: B. White and Son, 1788), 151-52.
Three Years Adventures,
84; John Matthews,
A Voyage to the River Sierra Leone, on the Coast of Africa, containing an Account of the Trade and Productions of the Country, and
of the Civil and Religious Customs and Manners of the People; in a Series of Letters to a Friend in England
(London: B. White and Son, 1788), 151-52.
6
Testimony of Thomas Poplett, 1789,
HCSP,
69:26; Robinson,
A Sailor Boy’s Experience,
78; Testimony of Thomas King, 1789,
HCSP,
68:333; Captain William Snelgrave,
A New Account of Some Parts of Guinea and the Slave Trade
(London, 1734; rpt. London: Frank Cass & Co., 1971), 171-72;
Three Years Adventures,
95-96, 125; Testimony of James Fraser, 1790,
HCSP,
71:34. See also Alan J. Rice,
Radical Narratives of the Black Atlantic
(London: Continuum, 2003), 120-46.
Testimony of Thomas Poplett, 1789,
HCSP,
69:26; Robinson,
A Sailor Boy’s Experience,
78; Testimony of Thomas King, 1789,
HCSP,
68:333; Captain William Snelgrave,
A New Account of Some Parts of Guinea and the Slave Trade
(London, 1734; rpt. London: Frank Cass & Co., 1971), 171-72;
Three Years Adventures,
95-96, 125; Testimony of James Fraser, 1790,
HCSP,
71:34. See also Alan J. Rice,
Radical Narratives of the Black Atlantic
(London: Continuum, 2003), 120-46.
8
Reverend John Riland,
Memoirs of a West-India Planter, Published from an Original MS. With a Preface and Additional Details
(London: Hamilton, Adams & Co., 1827), 20- 24; Testimony of Ecroyde Claxton, 1791,
HCSP,
82:34. Slave trader John Fountain testified in 1789, “It depends upon what nations they are of.—Duncoes are never put in irons—they supply a great number of the Slaves.—Fantees are always put in irons—the Ashantees and other nations as it may be necessary, and according to the offence they have committed.” See
HCSP,
69:269.
Reverend John Riland,
Memoirs of a West-India Planter, Published from an Original MS. With a Preface and Additional Details
(London: Hamilton, Adams & Co., 1827), 20- 24; Testimony of Ecroyde Claxton, 1791,
HCSP,
82:34. Slave trader John Fountain testified in 1789, “It depends upon what nations they are of.—Duncoes are never put in irons—they supply a great number of the Slaves.—Fantees are always put in irons—the Ashantees and other nations as it may be necessary, and according to the offence they have committed.” See
HCSP,
69:269.
9
Roderick Terry, “Some Old Papers Relating to the Newport Slave Trade,” Newport Historical Society,
Bulletin
62 (1927), 23.
Roderick Terry, “Some Old Papers Relating to the Newport Slave Trade,” Newport Historical Society,
Bulletin
62 (1927), 23.
10
“Medical Log of Slaver the ‘Lord Stanley,’ 1792, by Christopher Bowes, MS. 129. d.27., Royal College of Surgeons, London. On the reduction of bodies to numbers, see Smallwood,
Saltwater Slavery,
178.
“Medical Log of Slaver the ‘Lord Stanley,’ 1792, by Christopher Bowes, MS. 129. d.27., Royal College of Surgeons, London. On the reduction of bodies to numbers, see Smallwood,
Saltwater Slavery,
178.
11
Journal of the Ship
Mary,
1795-96, in Donnan III, 375. See also
Three Years Adventures,
39;
Memoirs of Crow,
38, 40; Testimony of Fraser, 1790,
HCSP,
71:45; Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, 1790,
HCSP,
72:294.
Journal of the Ship
Mary,
1795-96, in Donnan III, 375. See also
Three Years Adventures,
39;
Memoirs of Crow,
38, 40; Testimony of Fraser, 1790,
HCSP,
71:45; Testimony of Alexander Falconbridge, 1790,
HCSP,
72:294.
12
Boston Weekly News-Letter,
September 1, 1737;
Boston Gazette
, November 22, 1762; Mungo Park,
Travels into the Interior of Africa, Performed under the Direction and Patronage of the African Association, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797
, ed. Kate Ferguson Marsters (orig. publ. 1799; rpt. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2000), 305.
Boston Weekly News-Letter,
September 1, 1737;
Boston Gazette
, November 22, 1762; Mungo Park,
Travels into the Interior of Africa, Performed under the Direction and Patronage of the African Association, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797
, ed. Kate Ferguson Marsters (orig. publ. 1799; rpt. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2000), 305.
13
Pennsylvania Gazette,
July 30, 1741;
Royal Georgia Gazette,
June 14, 1781; Testimony of Peter Whitfield Branker, in
HLSP,
3:190. See also the testimony of Captains Richard Pearson and John Olderman, in ibid., 121, 151. For other instances of the enslaved fighting against privateers, see
Boston Weekly News-Letter,
July 31, 1760;
Massachusetts Spy: Or, the Worcester Gazette,
April 4, 1798;
Commercial Advertiser,
July 19, 1805;
American Mercury,
October 2, 1806; Testimony of James Penny, 1789,
HCSP
, 69:117;
Memoirs of Crow,
102.
Pennsylvania Gazette,
July 30, 1741;
Royal Georgia Gazette,
June 14, 1781; Testimony of Peter Whitfield Branker, in
HLSP,
3:190. See also the testimony of Captains Richard Pearson and John Olderman, in ibid., 121, 151. For other instances of the enslaved fighting against privateers, see
Boston Weekly News-Letter,
July 31, 1760;
Massachusetts Spy: Or, the Worcester Gazette,
April 4, 1798;
Commercial Advertiser,
July 19, 1805;
American Mercury,
October 2, 1806; Testimony of James Penny, 1789,
HCSP
, 69:117;
Memoirs of Crow,
102.
14
Enquirer,
September 26, 1804; Robert Barker,
The Unfortunate Shipwright, or, Cruel Captain, being a Faithful Narrative of the Unparalleled Sufferings of Robert Barker, Late Carpenter on board the Thetis Snow of Bristol; on a Voyage from thence to the Coast of Guinea and Antigua
(orig. publ. 1760; new edition, London, “printed for the SUFFERER for his own Benefit; and by no one else,” 1775), 20; Testimony of John Olderman,
HLSP,
3:150; Captain James Penny to Miles Barber, July 24, 1784,
Baillie v. Hartley,
exhibits regarding the Slave Ship
Comte du Nord
and Slave Trade; schedule, correspondence, accounts, E 219/377, NA;
Newport Mercury,
November 18, 1765.
Enquirer,
September 26, 1804; Robert Barker,
The Unfortunate Shipwright, or, Cruel Captain, being a Faithful Narrative of the Unparalleled Sufferings of Robert Barker, Late Carpenter on board the Thetis Snow of Bristol; on a Voyage from thence to the Coast of Guinea and Antigua
(orig. publ. 1760; new edition, London, “printed for the SUFFERER for his own Benefit; and by no one else,” 1775), 20; Testimony of John Olderman,
HLSP,
3:150; Captain James Penny to Miles Barber, July 24, 1784,
Baillie v. Hartley,
exhibits regarding the Slave Ship
Comte du Nord
and Slave Trade; schedule, correspondence, accounts, E 219/377, NA;
Newport Mercury,
November 18, 1765.
15
“Barque Eliza’s Journal, Robert Hall, Commander, from Liverpool to Cruize 31 Days & then to Africa & to Demarary; mounts 14 Nine & Six Pounders, with 31 Men & boys,” Royal African Company Records, T70/1220, NA; Testimony of Peter Whitfield Branker,
HLSP,
2:119; Testimony of John Ashley Hall,
HCSP,
72:233, 273.
“Barque Eliza’s Journal, Robert Hall, Commander, from Liverpool to Cruize 31 Days & then to Africa & to Demarary; mounts 14 Nine & Six Pounders, with 31 Men & boys,” Royal African Company Records, T70/1220, NA; Testimony of Peter Whitfield Branker,
HLSP,
2:119; Testimony of John Ashley Hall,
HCSP,
72:233, 273.
20
Captain John Adams,
Sketches taken during Ten Voyages to Africa, Between the Years 1786 and 1800; including Observations on the Country between Cape Palmas and the River Congo; and Cursory Remarks on the Physical and Moral Character of the Inhabitants
(London, 1823; rpt. New York: Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1970), 9.
Captain John Adams,
Sketches taken during Ten Voyages to Africa, Between the Years 1786 and 1800; including Observations on the Country between Cape Palmas and the River Congo; and Cursory Remarks on the Physical and Moral Character of the Inhabitants
(London, 1823; rpt. New York: Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1970), 9.
21
“Voyage to Guinea, Antego, Bay of Campeachy, Cuba, Barbadoes, &c.” (1714- 1723), Add. Ms. 39946, ff. 9-10, BL; Mouser, ed.,
The Log of the
Sandown, 103; “The Slave Trade at Calabar, 1700-1705,” in Donnan II, 15; Information of James Towne, in
Substance,
236.
“Voyage to Guinea, Antego, Bay of Campeachy, Cuba, Barbadoes, &c.” (1714- 1723), Add. Ms. 39946, ff. 9-10, BL; Mouser, ed.,
The Log of the
Sandown, 103; “The Slave Trade at Calabar, 1700-1705,” in Donnan II, 15; Information of James Towne, in
Substance,
236.
22
Falconbridge,
An Account of the Slave Trade,
28; Examination of Rice Harris (1733), HCA 1/56, ff. 73-74; Testimony of James Arnold, 1789,
HCSP,
69:126.
Falconbridge,
An Account of the Slave Trade,
28; Examination of Rice Harris (1733), HCA 1/56, ff. 73-74; Testimony of James Arnold, 1789,
HCSP,
69:126.
23
T. Aubrey,
The Sea-Surgeon, or the Guinea Man’s Vade Mecum. In which is laid down, The Method of curing such Diseases as usually happen Abroad, especially on the Coast of Guinea: with the best way of treating Negroes, both in Health and in Sickness. Written for the Use of young Sea-Surgeons
(London, 1729), 129-32; Atkins,
A Voyage to Guinea,
60; Testimony of Trotter, 1790,
HCSP,
73: 84-85. The many meanings of death in the Black Atlantic will be explored with great insight by Vincent Brown,
The Reaper’s Garden: Death and Power in the World of Atlantic Slavery
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, forthcoming). Essential background here is Kenneth F. Kiple,
The Caribbean Slave: A Biological History
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 1-75. A useful summary of the extensive research on mortality in the slave trade is Herbert S. Klein,
The Atlantic Slave Trade
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 130-42.
T. Aubrey,
The Sea-Surgeon, or the Guinea Man’s Vade Mecum. In which is laid down, The Method of curing such Diseases as usually happen Abroad, especially on the Coast of Guinea: with the best way of treating Negroes, both in Health and in Sickness. Written for the Use of young Sea-Surgeons
(London, 1729), 129-32; Atkins,
A Voyage to Guinea,
60; Testimony of Trotter, 1790,
HCSP,
73: 84-85. The many meanings of death in the Black Atlantic will be explored with great insight by Vincent Brown,
The Reaper’s Garden: Death and Power in the World of Atlantic Slavery
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, forthcoming). Essential background here is Kenneth F. Kiple,
The Caribbean Slave: A Biological History
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 1-75. A useful summary of the extensive research on mortality in the slave trade is Herbert S. Klein,
The Atlantic Slave Trade
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 130-42.
24
Testimony of Fraser, 1790,
HCSP,
71:58; Falconbridge,
An Account of the Slave Trade,
32; Testimony of Falconbridge, 1790,
HCSP,
72:303.
Testimony of Fraser, 1790,
HCSP,
71:58; Falconbridge,
An Account of the Slave Trade,
32; Testimony of Falconbridge, 1790,
HCSP,
72:303.
25
“Extracts of such Journals of the Surgeons employed in Ships trading to the Coast of Africa, since the first of August 1788, as have been transmitted to the Custom House in London, and which relate to the State of the Slaves during the Time they were on Board the Ships,” Slave Trade Papers, 3 May 1792, HL/PO/JO/10/7/920; “Log-books, etc. of slave ships, 1791-7,” Main Papers, 17-19 June 1799, HL/PO/JO/10/7/1104; “Certificates of Slaves Taken Aboard Ships,” 1794, HL/PO/JO/10/7/982, all in the HLRO. It should be noted that not all surgeons listed causes of death; therefore these archives contain more than the eighty-six journals analyzed here. Some of these journals (though not all) formed the empirical base of a study by Richard H. Steckel and Richard A. Jensen, “New Evidence on the Causes of Slave and Crew Mortality in the Atlantic Slave Trade,”
Journal of Economic History
46 (1986), 57-77.
“Extracts of such Journals of the Surgeons employed in Ships trading to the Coast of Africa, since the first of August 1788, as have been transmitted to the Custom House in London, and which relate to the State of the Slaves during the Time they were on Board the Ships,” Slave Trade Papers, 3 May 1792, HL/PO/JO/10/7/920; “Log-books, etc. of slave ships, 1791-7,” Main Papers, 17-19 June 1799, HL/PO/JO/10/7/1104; “Certificates of Slaves Taken Aboard Ships,” 1794, HL/PO/JO/10/7/982, all in the HLRO. It should be noted that not all surgeons listed causes of death; therefore these archives contain more than the eighty-six journals analyzed here. Some of these journals (though not all) formed the empirical base of a study by Richard H. Steckel and Richard A. Jensen, “New Evidence on the Causes of Slave and Crew Mortality in the Atlantic Slave Trade,”
Journal of Economic History
46 (1986), 57-77.
26
Thomas Trotter,
Observations on the Scurvy, with a Review of the Theories lately advanced on that Disease; and the Theories of Dr. Milman refuted from Practice
(London, 1785; Philadelphia, 1793), 14; Captain James Penny to Miles Barber, July 1, 1784,
Baillie v. Hartley,
E 219/377, NA; Case of the
Mermaid,
July 10, 1739, Donnan III, 51-52; J. Philmore,
Two Dialogues on the Man-Trade
(London, 1760), 34-35; Zachary B. Friedenberg,
Medicine Under Sail
(Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 2002). For a medical log in which a ship’s surgeon, Christopher Bowes, tended to the sickness of the enslaved aboard the
Lord Stanley
in 1792, see “Medical Log of Slaver the ‘Lord Stanley,’ 1792.” Bowes treated 33 people: 24 men, 3 “man-boys,” 3 women, and 3 girls for a variety of ailments—diarrhea, tremors, dysentery, fever, pain (bowels, chest, knee, ankle, head)—of whom 16 died, 3 on the coast and 13 in the Middle Passage (of the 392 on board). This ship had a comparatively low death rate of just over 4 percent. See
TSTD,
#82365.
Thomas Trotter,
Observations on the Scurvy, with a Review of the Theories lately advanced on that Disease; and the Theories of Dr. Milman refuted from Practice
(London, 1785; Philadelphia, 1793), 14; Captain James Penny to Miles Barber, July 1, 1784,
Baillie v. Hartley,
E 219/377, NA; Case of the
Mermaid,
July 10, 1739, Donnan III, 51-52; J. Philmore,
Two Dialogues on the Man-Trade
(London, 1760), 34-35; Zachary B. Friedenberg,
Medicine Under Sail
(Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 2002). For a medical log in which a ship’s surgeon, Christopher Bowes, tended to the sickness of the enslaved aboard the
Lord Stanley
in 1792, see “Medical Log of Slaver the ‘Lord Stanley,’ 1792.” Bowes treated 33 people: 24 men, 3 “man-boys,” 3 women, and 3 girls for a variety of ailments—diarrhea, tremors, dysentery, fever, pain (bowels, chest, knee, ankle, head)—of whom 16 died, 3 on the coast and 13 in the Middle Passage (of the 392 on board). This ship had a comparatively low death rate of just over 4 percent. See
TSTD,
#82365.
27
“Anonymous Account,” Add. Ms. 59777B, f. 39v; Nicholas Owen,
Journal of a Slave-Dealer: A View of Some Remarkable Axedents in the Life of Nics. Owen on the Coast of Africa and America from the Year 1746 to the Year 1757,
ed. Eveline Martin (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1930), 90; Thomas Winterbottom,
An Account of the Native Africans in the Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone, to which is added An Account of the Present State of Medicine among them
(London, 1803; rpt. London: Frank Cass & Co., 1969), vol. I, 236. See also Atkins,
A Voyage to Guinea,
79, 101; Matthews,
A Voyage to the River Sierra Leone,
123; Philip Curtin, “Epidemiology and the Slave Trade,”
Political Science Quarterly
83 (1968), 190-216; Kenneth Kiple and Brian Higgins, “Mortality Caused by Dehydration during the Middle Passage,” in Joseph Inikori and Stanley Engerman, eds.,
The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies, Societies, and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1992), 322-31; Richard B. Sheridan, “The Guinea Surgeons on the Middle Passage: The Provision of Medical Services in the British Slave Trade,”
International Journal of African Historical Studies
14 (1981), 601-25; Sharla Fett,
Working Cures: Healing, Health, and Power on Southern Slave Plantations
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002).
“Anonymous Account,” Add. Ms. 59777B, f. 39v; Nicholas Owen,
Journal of a Slave-Dealer: A View of Some Remarkable Axedents in the Life of Nics. Owen on the Coast of Africa and America from the Year 1746 to the Year 1757,
ed. Eveline Martin (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1930), 90; Thomas Winterbottom,
An Account of the Native Africans in the Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone, to which is added An Account of the Present State of Medicine among them
(London, 1803; rpt. London: Frank Cass & Co., 1969), vol. I, 236. See also Atkins,
A Voyage to Guinea,
79, 101; Matthews,
A Voyage to the River Sierra Leone,
123; Philip Curtin, “Epidemiology and the Slave Trade,”
Political Science Quarterly
83 (1968), 190-216; Kenneth Kiple and Brian Higgins, “Mortality Caused by Dehydration during the Middle Passage,” in Joseph Inikori and Stanley Engerman, eds.,
The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies, Societies, and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1992), 322-31; Richard B. Sheridan, “The Guinea Surgeons on the Middle Passage: The Provision of Medical Services in the British Slave Trade,”
International Journal of African Historical Studies
14 (1981), 601-25; Sharla Fett,
Working Cures: Healing, Health, and Power on Southern Slave Plantations
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002).
28
“Richard Simsons Voyage to the Straits of Magellan & S. Seas in the Year 1689,” Sloane 86, BL, f. 57; William Smith,
A New Voyage to Guinea: Describing the Customs, Manners, Soil, Climate, Habits, Buildings, Education, Manual Arts, Agriculture, Trade, Employments, Languages, Ranks of Distinction, Habitations, Diversions, Marriages, and whatever else is memorable among the Inhabitants
(London, 1744; rpt. London: Frank Cass & Co., 1967), 28; Snelgrave,
A New Account,
187-88; Atkins,
A Voyage to Guinea,
72. John Adams also used the “Tower of Babel” analogy when discussing the variety of West African languages. See Adams,
Sketches taken during Ten Voyages to Africa,
64. See also John Thornton,
Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400
-
1800
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992; 2nd edition, 1998), 19-20, 183-205.
“Richard Simsons Voyage to the Straits of Magellan & S. Seas in the Year 1689,” Sloane 86, BL, f. 57; William Smith,
A New Voyage to Guinea: Describing the Customs, Manners, Soil, Climate, Habits, Buildings, Education, Manual Arts, Agriculture, Trade, Employments, Languages, Ranks of Distinction, Habitations, Diversions, Marriages, and whatever else is memorable among the Inhabitants
(London, 1744; rpt. London: Frank Cass & Co., 1967), 28; Snelgrave,
A New Account,
187-88; Atkins,
A Voyage to Guinea,
72. John Adams also used the “Tower of Babel” analogy when discussing the variety of West African languages. See Adams,
Sketches taken during Ten Voyages to Africa,
64. See also John Thornton,
Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400
-
1800
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992; 2nd edition, 1998), 19-20, 183-205.
29
Snelgrave,
A New Account,
177-80; Testimony of Claxton,
HCSP,
82:36; Testimony of Fraser,
HCSP,
71:13; Testimony of Falconbridge,
HCSP,
69:48.
Snelgrave,
A New Account,
177-80; Testimony of Claxton,
HCSP,
82:36; Testimony of Fraser,
HCSP,
71:13; Testimony of Falconbridge,
HCSP,
69:48.
31
Testimony of James Rigby, 1799,
HSLP,
3:88; [Thompson],
Memoirs,
28-29; Testimony of William McIntosh, 1789,
HCSP,
68:194; Winterbottom,
An Account of the Native Africans,
1:11; Thornton,
Africa and Africans,
ch. 7. See also Okon Edet Uya, “The Middle Passage and Personality Change Among Diaspora Africans,” in Joseph E. Harris, ed.,
Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora
(Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1993, 2nd edition), 87.
Testimony of James Rigby, 1799,
HSLP,
3:88; [Thompson],
Memoirs,
28-29; Testimony of William McIntosh, 1789,
HCSP,
68:194; Winterbottom,
An Account of the Native Africans,
1:11; Thornton,
Africa and Africans,
ch. 7. See also Okon Edet Uya, “The Middle Passage and Personality Change Among Diaspora Africans,” in Joseph E. Harris, ed.,
Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora
(Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1993, 2nd edition), 87.
32
Falconbridge,
HCSP,
72:294; Peter Linebaugh, “All the Atlantic Mountains Shook,”
Labour/Le Travail
10 (1982), 87-121.
Falconbridge,
HCSP,
72:294; Peter Linebaugh, “All the Atlantic Mountains Shook,”
Labour/Le Travail
10 (1982), 87-121.
33
Robinson,
A Sailor Boy’s Experience,
78;
Three Years Adventures,
136. See also Testimony of Olderman,
HLSP,
3:175; Matthews,
A Voyage to the River Sierra Leone,
99; Testimony of Trotter,
HCSP,
73:84.
Robinson,
A Sailor Boy’s Experience,
78;
Three Years Adventures,
136. See also Testimony of Olderman,
HLSP,
3:175; Matthews,
A Voyage to the River Sierra Leone,
99; Testimony of Trotter,
HCSP,
73:84.
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