The Tragedy of Liberation: A History of the Chinese Revolution 1945-1957 (53 page)

25
    
Peitaiho Beach, 11 Sept. 1952, PRO, FO371-99238, pp. 13–15, and British Embassy to Foreign Office, 21 Jan. 1952, PRO, FO371-99345, p. 31.

26
    
On Harriet Mills, who later wrote about her experience and became a sinologist, see J. M. Addis, Conversation with Sardar Panikkar, 4 Dec. 1951, PRO, FO371-92333, pp. 135–6; Testimony by Father Rigney,7 March 1956, PRO, FO371-121000, pp. 26–7; in an interesting case of Stockholm syndrome, Harriet Mills proclaimed after her deportation from the country in 1955 that ‘New China is a peace-loving nation’ and stuck to her official confession as a spy as well as to her denunciations of several other Americans; see Arrests and Trials in China, 1955, PRO, FO371-115182, pp. 54–70; the Ricketts also justified their incarceration; see Allyn and Adele Rickett,
Prisoners of Liberation
, New York: Cameron Associates, 1957; both cases gave rise to allegations of brainwashing; on the sweep see Lum,
Peking, 1950–1953
, p. 71.

27
    
Orders on the Treatment of Foreigners, Shandong, 14 Aug. 1951, A1-4-9, p. 85; Lum,
Peking, 1950–1953
, p. 21.

28
    
Lum,
Peking, 1950–1953
, p. 99.

29
    
Walker,
China under Communism
, p. 19; on the pitiable state of many White Russians in 1953, see Parliamentary Question, 28 Jan. 1953, PRO, FO371-105338, pp. 61–2 and 116–22.

30
    
‘14 Chinese Trappists Dead, 274 are Missing’,
Catholic Herald
, 19 Dec. 1947; R. G. Tiedemann,
Reference Guide to Christian Missionary Societies in China: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century
, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2009, p. 25; Theresa Marie Moreau,
Blood of the Martyrs: Trappist Monks in Communist China
, Los Angeles: Veritas Est Libertas, 2012; Hooper,
China Stands Up
, p. 38.

31
    
Creighton Lacy, ‘The Missionary Exodus from China’,
Pacific Affairs
, 28, no. 4 (Dec. 1955), pp. 301–14; ‘New China Hands?’,
Time
, 17 Jan. 1949.

32
    
Hooper,
China Stands Up
, p. 115.

33
    
British Legation to the Holy See, 22 Aug. 1950, FO371-83535, p. 70.

34
    
Foreign Office, The Treatment of Christian Institutions under the Present Regime in China, 29 Aug. 1951, PRO, FO371-92368, pp. 112–17.

35
    
International Fides Service, 22 Sept. 1951, PRO, FO371-92333,pp. 29–32; Rossi,
The Communist Conquest of Shanghai
, pp. 137–8.

36
    
Orders from the Bureau of Public Security, Shandong, 14 Aug. 1951, A1-4-9, p. 85; on Mao’s fascination with the Vatican, see Chang and Halliday,
Mao
, p. 327; see also Rossi,
The Communist Conquest of Shanghai
, pp. 144–5.

37
    
W. Aedan McGrath,
Perseverance through Faith: A Priest’s Prison Diary
, ed. Theresa Marie Moreau, Bloomington, IN: Xlibris Corporation, 2008.

38
    
‘On the King’s Highway’,
Time
, 15 Sept. 1952; ‘US Bishop Died in Red Jail’,
New York Times
, 3 Sept. 1952; see also Jean-Paul Wiest,
Maryknoll in China: A History, 1918–1955
, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1988,pp. 395–400.

39
    
A. Olbert, ‘Short Report about the Diocese of Tsingtao’, 17 July 1953, AG SVD, Box 616, pp. 4440–6; ‘The Struggle of the Archbishop of Lan Chow’, 1953, AG SVD, Box 631, pp. 5878–86.

40
    
‘The Suspicious Butterflies’,
Time
, 3 Nov. 1952; China Missionary Newsletters, Oct. 1952, PRO, FO137-105336, p. 9.

41
    
Hooper,
China Stands Up
, p. 119.

42
    
Christianity in Communist China, 1954, PRO, FO371-110371, p. 43; Arrest of Canadian Nuns at Canton, 20 April 1951, PRO, FO371-92331, pp. 49–54; Foreign Office, 19 Dec. 1951, PRO, FO371-92333 p. 130; André Athenoux, 
Le Christ crucifié au pays de Mao
, Paris: Alsatia, 1968, pp. 127–8.

43
    
Catholic Herald
, 14 Dec. 1941, p. 1; Walker,
China under Communism
, p. 191; see also Arrest of Canadian Nuns at Canton, 20 April 1951, PRO, FO371-92331, p. 49.

44
    
Christianity in Communist China, 1954, PRO, FO371-110371,pp. 43–5; the 1954 numbers are from Report from the Centre, Shandong, A14-1-16, 7 May 1954, p. 2; Letter from Qingdao missionaries in Hong Kong to Rome, 23 March 1953, AG SVD, Box 616, p. 4424.

45
    
Barnett, letter no. 38, ‘Chinese Communists’; Knight Biggerstaff,
Nanking Letters, 1949
, Ithaca, NY: China–Japan Program, Cornell University, 1979, pp. 50–1; the monument in Shenyang went up in 1946; see Gray, ‘Looted City’,
Time
, 11 March 1946, and also J. A. L. Morgan, Journey to Manchuria, 30 Nov. 1956, PRO, FO371-120985, p. 129; ‘Leaning to One Side’,
Time
, 19 Sept. 1949.

46
    
Mao Zedong, ‘On the People’s Democratic Dictatorship: In Commemoration of the 28th Anniversary of the Communist Party of China, June 30, 1949’, in 
Selected Works of Mao Zedong
, vol. 4, p. 423; ‘Mao Settles the Dust’,
Time
, 11 July 1949; Chang and Halliday,
Mao
, p. 323.

47
    
The exact amounts of funding for the Long March are in Taylor,
The Generalissimo
, p. 111; ‘On the Ten Major Relationships’, 25 April 1956,
Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung
, vol. 5, p. 304.

48
    
The propaganda against Tito was noted repeatedly by Barnett, letter no. 38, ‘Chinese Communists’.

49
    
Paul Wingrove, ‘Gao Gang and the Moscow Connection: Some Evidence from Russian Sources’,
Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics
, 16, no. 4 (Dec. 2000), p. 93.

50
    
Philip Short,
Mao: A Life
, London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1999, p. 422; the best article on Mao’s trip is Paul Wingrove, who uses archives from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Paul Wingrove, ‘Mao in Moscow, 1949–50: Some New Archival Evidence’,
Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics
, 11, no. 4 (Dec. 1995), pp. 309–34; David Wolff, ‘ ‘‘One Finger’s Worth of Historical Events”: New Russian and Chinese Evidence on the Sino-Soviet Alliance and Split, 1948–1959’,
Cold War International History Project Bulletin
, Working Paper no. 30 (Aug. 2002), pp. 1–74; Sergey Radchenko and David Wolff, ‘To the Summit via Proxy-Summits: New Evidence from Soviet and Chinese Archives on Mao’s Long March to Moscow, 1949’,
Cold War International History Project Bulletin
, no. 16 (Winter 2008), pp. 105–82; see also Heinzig,
The Soviet Union and Communist China 1945–1950
.

51
    
Report of Negotiation between Zhou, Mikoyan and Vyshinsky to Stalin, 2 and 3 Feb. 1950, RGASPI, 82-2-1247, pp. 1–6, 68–93.

52
    
Wingrove, ‘Mao in Moscow’, p. 331.

53
    
Financial Bulletin, 20 April 1950, PRO, FO371-83346, p. 33; see also Interrogation Reports, Jan. 1952, PRO, FO371-99364, p. 19; Rossi,
The Communist Conquest of Shanghai
, p. 91.

54
    
Interrogation Reports, Jan. 1952, PRO, FO371-99364, p. 138; Interrogation Report, 31 May 1951, PRO, FO371-92353, p. 2.

55
    
Interrogation Reports, Jan. 1952, PRO, FO371-99364, pp. 24 and 138; Loh,
Escape from Red China
, p. 148; Willens,
Stateless in Shanghai
, p. 222; Hong Kong Interrogation Reports 726 and 863, 10 June and 26 Nov. 1954, RG59, Box 5, 903069, Lot 56D454, National Archives at College Park.

56
    
T. G. Zazerskaya,
Sovetskie spetsialisty i formirovanie voenno-promyshlennogo kompleksa Kitaya (1949–1960 gg.)
, St Petersburg: Sankt Peterburg Gosudarstvennyi Universitet, 2000; Shen Zhihua,
Sulian zhuanjia zai Zhongguo
(Soviet experts in China), Beijing: Xinhua chubanshe, 2009; Deborah A. Kaple, ‘Soviet Advisors in China in the 1950s’, in Odd Arne Westad (ed.),
Brothers in Arms: The Rise and Fall of the Sino-Soviet Alliance, 1945–1963
, Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1998,pp. 117–40; see also ‘150,000 Big Noses’,
Time
, 16 Oct. 1950.

57
    
RGASPI, 25 June 1950, 17-137-402, pp. 114 and 221–30; 18 Dec. 1950, 17-137-403, pp. 215–24.

58
    
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Beijing, 6 Sept. 1963, 109-3321-2, pp. 66–8; a much more detailed account of exports to the Soviet Union from 1949 to 1962 appears in Frank Dikötter,
Mao’s Great Famine: The History of China’s Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–1962
, London: Bloomsbury, 2010, pp. 73–7.

59
    
Hua-yu Li, ‘Instilling Stalinism in Chinese Party Members: Absorbing Stalin’s
Short Course
in the 1950s’, in Thomas P. Bernstein and Hua-yu Li (eds),
China Learns from the Soviet Union, 1949–Present
, Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009, pp. 107–30; Esther Holland Jian,
British Girl, Chinese Wife
, Beijing: New World Press, 1985, p. 134.

60
    
K. E. Priestley, ‘The Sino-Soviet Friendship Association’,
Pacific Affairs
, 25, no. 3 (Sept. 1952), p. 289; Paul Clark,
Chinese Cinema: Culture and Politics since 1949
, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987,pp. 40–1.

7: War Again

1
      
Andrei Lankov,
From Stalin to Kim Il Sung: The Formation of North Korea, 1945–1960
, London: Hurst, 2002; see also Jasper Becker,
Rogue Regime: Kim Jong Il and the Looming Threat of North Korea
, New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.

2
      
Chen Jian,
China’s Road to the Korean War
, New York: Columbia University Press, 1996, p. 110; Goncharov, Lewis and Xue,
Uncertain Partners
, pp. 142–5.

3
      
Shen Zhihua, ‘Sino-North Korean Conflict and its Resolution during the Korean War’,
Cold War International History Project Bulletin
, nos 14–15 (Winter 2003–Spring 2004), pp. 9–24; Shen Zhihua, ‘Sino-Soviet Relations and the Origins of the Korean War: Stalin’s Strategic Goals in the Far East’,
Journal of Cold War Studies
, 2, no. 2 (Spring 2000), pp. 44–68.

4
      
Max Hastings,
The Korean War
, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987, p. 53.

5
      
Chang and Halliday,
Mao
, p. 360.

6
      
Alexandre Y. Mansourov, ‘Stalin, Mao, Kim, and China’s Decision to Enter the Korean War, Sept. 16–Oct. 15, 1950: New Evidence from the Russian Archives’,
Cold War International History Project Bulletin
, nos 6–7 (Winter 1995), p. 114.

7
      
Nie Rongzhen, ‘Beijing’s Decision to Intervene’, and Peng Dehuai, ‘My Story of the Korean War’, in Xiaobing Li, Allan R. Millett and Bin Yu (eds),
Mao’s Generals Remember Korea
, Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2001, pp. 31 and 41.

8
      
The episode is recounted on the basis of detailed archival sources in Chang and Halliday,
Mao
, p. 364.

9
      
Quoted in Matthew Aid and Jeffrey T. Richelson, ‘U.S. Intelligence and China: Collection, Analysis, and Covert Action’, Digital National Security Archive Series, p. 3 (online publication).

10
    
David Halberstam,
The Coldest Winter: America and the Korean War
, London: Macmillan, 2008, p. 372.

11
    
Shu Guang Zhang,
Mao’s Military Romanticism: China and the Korean War, 1950–1953
, Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995, p. 126; Richard Peters and Xiaobing Li (eds),
Voices from the Korean War: Personal Stories of American, Korean, and Chinese Soldiers
, Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2004; see also interrogation reports of prisoners of war, for instance KG0876, Li Shu Sun, 27 Nov. 1951; KG0896, Chang Hsin Hua, 21 Dec. 1951; KG0915, K’ang Wen Ch’eng, 29 Dec. 1951; KG0937, Chou Shih Ch’ang, 9 Jan. 1952; all in Assistant Chief of Staff G2, RG319, Box 332, 950054 ATIS Interrogation Reports, National Archives at College Park.