Two for Joy (40 page)

BYZANTINE EMPIRE

After the western Roman Empire fell in 476, the eastern part of the empire continued. Although Christianity became the state religion and Greek replaced Latin in everyday speech, its citizens still regarded themselves as Romans. Finally conquered by the Turks in 1453, for much of its nearly thousand years of existence the empire was one of the world’s great powers. Hundreds of years after its fall, scholars derived the name “Byzantine” from the city of Byzantium, which Constantine I (274-337) had made his capital, renaming it Constantinople.

CALLIOPE

See MUSES

CERBERUS

Three-headed dog that in Greek mythology guarded the entrance to the underworld.

CHALKE

One of many structures destroyed during the Nika Riots (532) and rebuilt by JUSTINIAN I. The main entrance to the GREAT PALACE, its roof was tiled in bronze. Its interior had a domed ceiling and was decorated with mosaics of JUSTINIAN, THEODORA and imperial military triumphs.

CLOTHO

See ATROPOS

DANIEL THE STYLITE (409-493)

Born in Syria, he became a monk and spent twenty five years in a monastery. He subsequently took up residence atop a pillar near Constantinople, remaining there for over thirty years. He is said to have descended only once, in order to advise Emperor Basiliscus (d 477) against supporting the MONOPHYSITES.

DOCETISM

Early Christian heresy claiming that Christ did not have a real body during his life on earth but rather a phantom one, and thus did not actually suffer but only seemed to suffer.

DODONA

Shrine in northwestern Greece. Consulted by supplicants from as early as 500 BC, oracles were interpreted from the sounds made by leather thongs slapping against a brass plate hanging in the sanctuary’s sacred tree or alternatively from the rustling of its leaves.

ETERNAL PEACE

Treaty ratified in 532 between JUSTINIAN I and the Persian ruler Khosrow I (d 579).

EUNUCH

Eunuchs played an important part in the army, church and civil administrations of the Byzantine Empire. Many high offices in the palace were typically held by eunuchs.

EUTERPE

See MUSES

EUTYCHIANISM

Religious philosophy declaring that Christ’s divine nature absorbed his human side. Advocated by the monk Eutyches (c378-c452).

EUXINE SEA

Large inland sea today known as the Black Sea.

EXCUBITORS

The palace guard.

FACTIONS

Supporters of the BLUES or GREENS (chariot teams named for their racing colors). Great rivalry existed between the factions, which had their own seating sections at the HIPPODROME. Brawls between them were not uncommon and occasionally escalated into city-wide riots.

FOLLIS

Largest of the copper coins, worth 40 NUMMI or 1/288th of a NOMISMA.

GREAT CHURCH

Common name for the Church of the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia). One of the world’s great architectural achievements, the Hagia Sophia was completed in 537 and replaced the church burnt down during the Nika Riots (532). The structure is most notable for its immense central dome, about a hundred feet in diameter.

GREAT PALACE

Lay in the southeastern part of Constantinople. It was not one building but rather many, set amidst trees and gardens. The grounds included barracks for the EXCUBITORS, ceremonial rooms, meeting halls, the imperial family’s living quarters, churches and housing provided for court officials, ambassadors and various other dignitaries.

GREENS

See FACTIONS

HIMATION

Sculptures of statesmen and philosophers commonly depicted them wearing this draped Greek garment.

HIPPODROME

U-shaped race track near the GREAT CHURCH. The Hippodrome had tiered seating accommodating up to a hundred thousand spectators. It was also used for public celebrations and other civic events.

HORSE HOOF BREASTPLATES

Mentioned by Pausanias (2nd century AD) in his Description of Greece, covering regional geography, history, folklore, architecture and so forth. The Sauromataean breastplate he describes was fashioned of overlapping slices of horse hoof sewn in a pattern resembling snake scales or unopened pine cones and was thus well nigh impenetrable. See also SAUROMATAE.

HYDRA

A kind of organ, commonly used for ceremonial rather than religious events. It appears to have been of the type fed by bellows.

JUSTINIAN I (483-565)

Justinian I ruled from 527 to 565. His ambition was to restore the Roman Empire to its former glory and he succeeded in regaining North Africa, Italy and southeastern Spain. He codified Roman law in the Justinian Code. After the Nika Riots (532) he rebuilt the still-standing Church of the Holy Wisdom (see GREAT CHURCH) as well as many other buildings in Constantinople.

KALAMOS

Reed pen.

KOHL

Powdered cosmetic used by Egyptian and middle eastern women to darken the edges of their eyelids.

LATRUNCULI

Popular Greek and Roman game involving military strategy, played on a checkered board.

LORD CHAMBERLAIN

Typically a EUNUCH, the Lord (or Grand) Chamberlain was the chief attendant to the emperor and supervised most of those serving at the palace. He also took a large role in court ceremonies but his real power arose from his close working relationship with the emperor, which allowed him to wield great influence.

MANICHAEISM

Religion founded by the Babylonian prophet Mani (c216-c276) that offered salvation through special knowledge of spiritual truth. Its basic philosophy was dualistic, viewing the world as divided between the realms of good and evil, and therefore had much in common with ZOROASTRIANISM.

MARY OF EGYPT (c344-c42l)

Notorious prostitute in Alexandria, Egypt. Having worked her passage to the Holy Land by plying her profession aboard ship, she continued with her old life but eventually repented. She then retired to the desert and lived as a hermitess for over forty years. She was discovered dead by the monk Zosimus, who buried her with the aid of a lion that dug a hole in the sand.

MASTER OF THE OFFICES

Oversaw the civil side of imperial administration within the palace.

MESE

Main street of Constantinople running from the MILION to the city walls. The Mese connected, among other sites, the forums of Constantine, Tauri, Bovis and Arkadios. Its entire length was rich with columns, arches and statuary (depicting secular, military, imperial, and religious subjects), fountains, religious establishments, workshops, monuments, public baths and private dwellings, making it a perfect mirror of the heavily populated and densely built city it traversed.

MILION

Marble obelisk near the GREAT CHURCH. It was the official milestone from which all distances in the empire were measured.

MITHRAISM

Of Persian origin, Mithraism spread throughout the Roman empire via its followers in various branches of the military. It became one of the most popular religions before being superseded by Christianity, perhaps in part because women were excluded from Mithraism. Mithraeums (Mithraic temples) were underground and have been found on sites as far apart as northern England and what is now the Holy Land. Mithrans were required to practice chastity, obedience and loyalty. Some parallels have been drawn between Mithraism and Christianity because of shared practices such as baptism and a belief in resurrection and the fact that Mithra, in common with many sun gods, was born on December 25th. Mithrans advanced within their religion through seven degrees. In ascending order, these were Corax (Raven), Nymphus (Male Bride), Miles (Soldier), Leo (Lion), Peres (Persian), Heliodromus (Runner of the Sun), and Pater (Father).

MONOPHYSITES

Adherents to a doctrine holding that Christ had only one nature (a composite of the divine and the human) rather than two that were separate within him. Although condemned by the fourth ecumenical council in Chalcedon (451) it nevertheless remained particularly strong in Syria and Egypt during the reign of JUSTINIAN I.

MUSES

Zeus’ nine daughters by Mnemosyne (“memory”). The Muses’ names, spheres of influence and emblems are generally agreed to be:

Calliope (eloquence and epic poetry); wax tablet and stylus. Considered the eldest Muse.

Euterpe (lyric poetry and music); a flute, which she is said to have invented.

Erato (erotic poetry); a lyre.

Polyhymnia (sacred poetry and hymns). Usually depicted pensively leaning her elbow on a low pillar.

Clio (history); a scroll.

Melpomene (tragedy); tragic mask. Often shown wearing cothurni, the height-enhancing boots worn by actors in tragic plays.

Thalia (pastoral poetry and comedy); shepherd’s crook and a comic mask.

Terpsichore (dance and choral singing). Commonly represented as dancing while holding a lyre.

Urania (astronomy); celestial globe. Shown wearing a starry cloak.

NOMISMA (plural: NOMISMATA)

Standard gold coin at the time of JUSTINIAN I.

NUMMI (singular: NUMMUS)

In the early Byzantine period the nummus was the smallest copper coin, worth 1/40th of a FOLLIS. Although suspended in 498 the minting of nummi was resumed in 512.

ORACLE AT DELPHI

Most famous oracle in Greece. Priestesses serving in the temple to Apollo on Mount Parnassus prophecied in a semi-conscious and incoherent state after inhaling vapors escaping from the earth and chewing laurel leaves. Their ramblings were interpreted by a temple priest.

OROPOS

Famous healing shrine in Attica, east central Greece. The sick slept there in hopes of dreaming a cure for their illnesses.

OVID (43BC-l7AD)

Roman poet best known for his erotic verse. Author of the Art of Love and also The Metamorphoses, a mythological-historical collection.

PARASANG

Ancient Persian unit of distance based upon ground covered in an hour’s march. Usually estimated at 3.5 modern miles but not altogether fixed.

PARTHIAN SHOT

One delivered whilst in retreat.

PATRIARCH

Head of a diocese or patriarchate. In the time of JUSTINIAN I these were (ranked by precedence) Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem.

PLATO’S ACADEMY

Plato (?428BC-347BC?) founded his academy in 387 BC. Situated on the northwestern side of Athens, its curriculum included natural science, mathematics and training for public service. Along with other pagan schools it was closed in 529 by order of JUSTINIAN I.

PLOTINUS (c204-270)

Egyptian philosopher who went to Rome in 244 and taught there until about 268. His writings were edited by his student Porphyry (234-305) into six sets of nine books under the general title of The Enneads (from “ennea,” nine).

PYRRHIC VICTORY

Pyrrhus (319-272BC) ruled Epirus in northwest Greece. His victories over the Romans were so hard won that when congratulated upon them Pyrrhus is said to have replied that one more such victory would ruin him.

QUAESTOR

Public official who administered financial and legal matters as well as drafting laws.

SALUS

Roman goddess of health. Her Greek equivalent was Hygieia.

SARACENI

Nomadic tribe living in the Arabian desert regions. Their unusual wedding customs were described by Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus (4th century AD).

SAUROMATAE

Scythian tribe said by Herodotus (c485-425BC) to be descended from intermarriage between local warriors and shipwrecked Amazon women. See also HORSE HOOF BREASTPLATES.

SHAPUR I (d 272)

Persian ruler who in 260 defeated the Romans at Edessa (now Urfa, Turkey) and captured Emperor VALERIAN, who died whilst in captivity.

SHATRANJ

Ancestor of chess, originating in India.

SILENTIARY

Court official whose duties were similar to those of an usher and included guarding the room in which an imperial audience or meeting was being held.

SINOPE

Now known as Sinop. A port on the southern shore of the EUXINE SEA.

SPATHA

Long-bladed sword.

SPATHOMELE

Spatula-like instrument employed in mixing, stirring or applying medication.

STADIA (singular: STADE or STADIUM)

Ancient Greek measure of distance. As adopted by the Romans a stade equaled 606 feet 9 inches, the length of a footrace at the Olympic Games.

STYLITES

Holy men who often spent years living atop columns. Also known as pillar saints, from “stylos,” pillar. Constantinople boasted numerous stylites.

THEODORA (c 497-548)

The influential wife of Emperor JUSTINIAN I, whom she married in 525. It has been alleged that she had formerly been an actress and a prostitute. When the Nika Riots broke out in Constantinople in 532, she is said to have urged her husband to remain in the city, thus saving his throne.

TYANA

Town in Cappadocia, a region in east central Turkey.

VALERIAN

See SHAPUR I

WALLS OF CONSTANTINOPLE

Constantinople was protected by a series of sea and land walls, the first of which were built by Constantine I (274-337), who made the city the empire’s capital in 324. In 413, to accommodate its expanding population, Theodosius II (401-450) added another set of fortifications, an inner and outer wall and a moat, west of Constantine’s wall.

ZEUXIPPOS

Thracian deity whose name combines “Zeus” and “Hippos.” The public baths named after Zeuxippos were erected by order of Septimius Severus (c146-211). A casualty of the Nika riots (532) they were rebuilt by JUSTINIAN I. Situated to the northeast of the HIPPODROME, they were generally considered the most luxurious of the public baths and were famous for their classical statues, numbering between sixty and eighty.

ZOROASTRIANISM

Religion founded by Zoroaster (c628BC-c551BC), of whom little is known. Its focus is the cosmic struggle between light (good) and darkness (evil).

ZURVAN

Persian god of destiny and time and father of the twins Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainya, who represented good/light and evil/darkness respectively.

Glossary