Voices of Islam (48 page)

What Is Shiite Islam?
225

Among the Sufi orders that contributed to the spread of Shi‘ism in pre- dominantly Sunni Iran, the most important was the Safavi order, founded by Shaykh Safi al-Din (d. 1334
CE
), a Sunni who practiced Shafi‘i jurispru- dence. The Safavi order spread rapidly throughout Azerbaijan, eastern Anatolia, and other regions, acquiring infl ence over a number of Turkoman tribes. Under Shaykh Safi fourth successor, Shaykh Junayd (d. 1460
CE
), the order was transformed into an active military movement. Shaykh Junayd was the fi Safavid spiritual leader to espouse specifi ly Shiite sentiments. Junayd’s son and successor, Shaykh Haydar (d. 1488
CE
), was responsible for instructing his soldier-Sufi followers to adopt the scarlet headgear of 12 gores commemorating the 12 Imams, for which they became known as the
Qizilbash,
a Turkish term meaning ‘‘red-head.’’

The Shi‘ism of the Qizilbash Turkomans became more clearly manifest when the youthful Isma‘il became the leader of the Safavi order. Isma‘il pre- sented himself to his followers as the representative of the hidden twelfth Imam. With the help of his Qizilbash forces, he speedily seized Azerbaijan and entered its capital, Tabriz, in 1501. He then proclaimed himself
Shah
or king and at the same time declared Twelver Shi‘ism to be the official reli- gion of the newly founded Safavid state. Shah Isma‘il brought all of Iran under his control during the ensuing decade. The Safavid dynasty ruled Iran until 1722
CE
.

In order to enhance their legitimacy, Shah Isma‘il and his immediate suc- cessors claimed to represent the Mahdi, or Hidden Imam. They also claimed ‘Alid origins for their dynasty, tracing their ancestry to Imam Musa al-Kazim. Shi‘ism became the established religion of the Safavid state gradually. Under Shah Isma‘il (r. 1501–1524
CE
) and his son Tahmasp (r. 1524–1576
CE
), the Safavids articulated a religious policy that in partnership with Imami scholars actively propagated Twelver Shi‘ism. However, as Iran did not have an estab- lished class of Shiite religious scholars at that time, the Safavids were obliged to invite scholars from the Arab centers of Imami scholarship, notably Najaf, Bahrain, and Jabal Amil, to instruct their subjects. The foremost of these Arab Shiite scholars was Shaykh ‘Ali al-Karaki al-Amili (d. 1534
CE
), also known as al-Muhaqqiq al-Thani (The Second Authority).

Under the infl ence of Amili and others, the Safavids encouraged the training of a class of Imami legal scholars to teach the established doctrines of Twelver Shi‘ism. During the reign of Shah ‘Abbas I (r. 1587–1629
CE
), Imami rituals and popular practices were established, such as pilgrimage visits (
ziyara
) to the tombs of the Imams and their relatives in Najaf, Karbala, and other shrine cities of Iraq, as well as in Mashhad and Qom in Iran. The train- ing of Imami scholars was further facilitated through the foundation of reli- gious colleges in Isfahan, the Safavid capital. By the end of the seventeenth century
CE
, an infl class of Shiite religious scholars had developed in the Safavid state.

226
Voices of Tradition

The Safavid period witnessed a renaissance of Muslim sciences and scholar- ship. Foremost among the intellectual achievements of the period were the original contributions of Shiite scholars that belonged to the so-called School of Isfahan. These scholars integrated the philosophical, theological, and mys- tical traditions of Shi‘ism into a metaphysical synthesis known as Divine Wisdom or theosophy (Persian,
hikmat-i ilahi
). The founder of the Shiite theosophical school was Muhammad Baqir Astarabadi (d. 1630
CE
), also known as Mir Damad, a Shiite theologian, philosopher, and poet, who served as the chief religious authority (
Shaykh al-Islam
) of Isfahan. The most impor- tant representative of the School of Isfahan was Mir Damad’s principal stu- dent, Sadr al-Din Muhammad Shirazi (d. 1640
CE
), better known as Mulla Sadra. Mulla Sadra produced his own synthesis of Muslim thought, including theology, peripatetic philosophy, philosophical mysticism, and Sufi studies, particularly the Sufism of Ibn al-‘Arabi. Mulla Sadra trained eminent stu- dents, such as Mulla Muhsin Kashani (d. 1680
CE
) and ‘Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji (d. 1661
CE
), who passed down the traditions of the School of Isfahan in later centuries in both Iran and India.

The Imami scholars, especially the jurists among them, played an increas- ingly prominent role in the affairs of the Safavid state. This trend reached its climax with Muhammad Baqir Majlisi (d. 1699
CE
), who was the leading Twelver Shiite scholar and authority of the time. He is best known for compiling the encyclopedic collection of Shiite Hadith known as
Bihar al- anwar
(Seas of Light). Many of the Twelver scholars disagreed among them- selves on theological and juristic issues and divided into two camps, generally designated as the
Akhbari
(the traditionalist school) and the
Usuli
(the rationalist school). Mulla Muhammad Amin Astarabadi (d. 1624
CE
), one of the most infl Akhbari scholars, attacked the very idea of
ijtihad
in Islamic jurisprudence and branded the Usuli scholars enemies of the religion. Criticizing earlier innovations in
usul al-fiqh,
the principles of jurisprudence, Astarabadi recognized the
akhbar,
the traditions of the Imams, as the most important source of Islamic law and as the only valid resource for the correct understanding of the Qur’an and the way of the Prophet Muhammad.

The Akhbari school of Twelver Shi‘ism flourished for almost two centuries in Iran and the shrine cities of Iraq. In the second half of the eighteenth cen- tury, when Twelver Shi‘ism was already widespread in Iran, the Usuli doc- trine found a new champion in Muhammad Baqir Bihbahani (d. 1793
CE
), who defended the
ijtihad
of the jurists and successfully led the intellectual debate against the Akhbaris. Thereafter, the Akhbaris rapidly lost their posi- tion to the Usulis, who now emerged as the prevailing scholars of jurispru- dence in Imami Shi‘ism. The reestablishment of the Usuli school led to an unprecedented enhancement of the authority of the legal scholars under the Qajar dynasty of Iran (r. 1794–1925). This enhancement of scholarly status placed the practice of
taqlid,
the imitation of a noted jurist, at the center of Imami jurisprudence.

What Is Shiite Islam?
227

Meanwhile, Imami Shi‘ism had also spread to southern Lebanon and certain regions of India. Twelver legal scholars, who were often of Persian origin, were particularly active in India. The Adil-Shahis of Bijapur (r. 1490–1686
CE
) were the fi Muslim dynasty in India to adopt Imami Shi‘ism as the religious doctrine of their state. Sultan Quli (r. 1496– 1543
CE
), the founder of the Qutb-Shahi dynasty of Golconda, also adopted Imami Shi‘ism. In India, the Imami
ulama
encountered the hostility of the Sunnis. Nur Allah Shushtari, an eminent Twelver theologian-jurist who emigrated from Iran to India and enjoyed some popularity at the Mughal court, was executed in 1610
CE
at the instigation of the Sunni scholars. Despite such persecution, Shiite communities survived even in the Mughal empire, especially in the region of Hyderabad. Twelver Shi‘ism also spread to northern India and was adopted in the kingdom of Awadh (1722–1856) with its capital at Lucknow.

Developments in the Modern Period

The modern period of Imami Shi‘ism has been marked by two major influ- ences. The fi st has been the expanding role and impact of European con- quest and colonization in many parts of the Muslim world. The second has been the emergence of the modern nation–state as a means of uniting people with a common allegiance to territory and collective identity. While Iran was never directly conquered and ruled by European powers, it was deeply affected by the contested claims of territorial domination by various European states, in particular Russia, France, and Britain, all of which sought to cultivate a zone of influence in the region.

One aspect of the response to European encroachment involved the modernization of armies, the appropriation of technology and industry, and the gradual absorption of different systems of education and constitu- tional reforms. Changes took place unevenly in urban and rural areas, among various groups, and even within individual states. In general, traditional pat- terns of religious and educational life continued or even intensifi in response to perceived alien infl es. In places where the Twelver Shiite population was dominant, namely Iran and Iraq, different patterns of response to change emerged. In Iran, the religious scholars played an impor- tant role in helping the Qajar rulers resist Russian imperial designs and pro- tested strongly against the granting of concessions by the state to foreign powers. A far more important debate also arose over the acceptance of consti- tutional ideas from Europe and their adaptation to the traditionally ruled Muslim state.

Shiite scholars, particularly Shaykh Muhammad Husayn Na’ini (d. 1936), argued strongly for the compatibility of constitutional ideas and Twelver tra- ditions. In Iran, this led to a series of dramatic changes. Between 1905 and

228
Voices of Tradition

1911, there took place a constitutional revolution, aimed at reframing the rules of governance and limiting the role of the absolute Qajar monarchs. However, this political experiment failed, and following short periods of Brit- ish control, power in Iran was seized in 1921 by an army colonel, Reza Khan, who soon deposed the Qajar dynasty and declared himself Shah. Reza Shah Pahlavi (r. 1925–1941) instituted a series of reforms of a secular nature that greatly curtailed the role and influence of religious scholars and the Twelver establishment in Iran. His son and successor, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (r. 1941–1979), continued the general policies of his father. In the 1950s, a strong secular nationalist movement led by Dr. Mohammed Mossadegh gained strength. This movement was thwarted with the help of the American Central Intelligence Agency, and the position of the Shah came to be consoli- dated even further. Many leading religious scholars were moved to intensify debate on the issues of the time at the various centers of Shiite learning. Among them were Allama Muhammad Husayn Tabataba’i (d. 1981) and Murtaza Mutahhari (d. 1979). A number of religious leaders came to be regarded as successors to the great Ayatollah Burujirdi (d. 1961), to whom the title of
Marja’-i Taqlid
(Source of Imitation) had been given by his peers.

Meanwhile in Iraq, the Shiite religious leaders played an unsuccessful role in resisting British rule after World War I, although in conjunction with scholars from Iran they engaged actively in debating the issues of the day. Eventually, the Middle East was divided into several spheres of infl nce and Iraq came to be governed under a British mandate, which led to the appointment of King Faisal I (r. 1921–1933) as ruler of an independent Iraq. In 1958, there was a coup by army officers, leading to the execution of King Faisal II and a sustained period of instability. Subsequently, another military dictatorship was established in Iraq by Saddam Hussein, during whose long rule all religious opposition was brutally suppressed.

During the 1960s, a lesser known but politically active Iranian religious scholar named Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini called for the abolition of the monarchy in Iran. He was sent into exile in Iraq, where he continued his opposition to the Iranian regime. There were also other intellectuals, not directly linked to the religious authorities, who challenged the status quo in Iran. These nonclerical intellectuals helped marshal the resources that brought Twelver Shi‘ism into dialogue with contemporary ideologies. The most famous of these intellectuals, ‘Ali Shariati (d. 1977), catalyzed student and youth opposition through his writings and lectures. Traditionally trained scholars, such as Murtaza Mutahhari, also added their voices to the mounting opposition. However, Khomeini marshaled the forces of opposition to the Shah most successfully. Khomeini’s leadership led to the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the abolition of the Pahlavi monarchy, and the inauguration of the Islamic Republic of Iran. After the revolution, a constitutional structure emerged in Iran that institutionalized the role of the Twelver scholars as

What Is Shiite Islam?
229

representatives of the Hidden Imam and guardians of the state. An institu- tionalized ideology,
vilayat-i faqih
(the authority of the jurist), was written into the Iranian constitution. This ideology established a leading role for the supreme religious leader in the affairs of the state, while also allowing for an elected legislative body, the
majlis
or parliament, and an elected president. After Khomeini’s death in 1989, the role of the supreme leader has been assumed by Ayatollah ‘Ali Khamenei.

In Iran, Iraq, and parts of Lebanon, recent political developments continue to be influential in discussions and debates about the Twelver Shiite heritage. Imami Shiite communities, meanwhile, have continued to thrive in many other regions. In addition to Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and India, there are Twelver Shiite communities in parts of Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America.

Doctrines and Practices of Twelver Shi‘ism

For all Shi‘a, the period up to the death of Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiq constitutes a shared legacy. During this period, the Shi‘a preserved the traditions of the Prophet and the early Imams, began the development of a tradition of legal thought, and laid the foundations of what in due course represented a strong tradition of philosophical and esoteric interpretation of Islam. ‘‘I am the city of knowledge and ‘Ali is its gate; so whoever desires knowledge, let him enter the gate.’’ This
hadith
, attributed to the Prophet Muhammad, highlights the complementarity of roles envisaged in Shi‘ism. Reference has already been made to ‘Ali’s intimate engagement with the mission of the Prophet and his active role in the cause of Islam. This engagement is highlighted by Shiite sources to affi ‘Ali’s key role in the history of the interpretation of the Qur’an, a commitment to the application of reason in matters of faith, an emphasis on ethical conduct and social justice, the importance of a personal search for knowledge, and the cultivation of an inner life in communion with God. Many of ‘Ali’s teachings were preserved in a work titled
Nahj al- Balagha
(The Way of Eloquence), which highlights his foundational role in inspiring Shiite intellectual and spiritual traditions. In this context, the Imam has a pivotal role in Shiite Islam, linking revelation to daily human life and giving expression to practical forms in society by which the ethical ideals of Shi‘ism can be realized.