Authors: Alan S. Miller,Satoshi Kanazawa
Tags: #Itzy, #Kickass.so
Why Beautiful People Have More Daughters: From Dating, Shopping, and Praying to Going to War and Becoming a Billionaire–Two Evolutionary Psychologists Explain Why We Do What We Do (25 page)
34
Thakerar and Iwawaki (1979).
35
Langlois et al. (1987); Samuels and Ewy (1985).
36
Slater et al. (1998).
37
Langlois, Roggman, and Rieser-Danner (1990).
38
Symons (1995).
39
Little et al. (2002).
40
Gangestad, Thornhill, and Yeo (1994); Mealey, Bridgstock, and Townsend (1999); Perrett et al. (1999).
41
Bailit et al. (1970); Møller (1990, 1992); Parsons (1992).
42
Parsons (1990).
43
Gangestad and Buss (1993).
44
Langlois and Roggman (1990); Rubenstein, Langlois, and Roggman (2002).
45
Langlois and Roggman (1990).
46
Thornhill and Gangestad (1993).
47
Thornhill and Møller (1997, pp. 528â33).
48
Langlois et al. (2000); Shackelford and Larsen (1999).
49
Hönekopp, Bartholomé, and Jansen (2004).
50
Henderson and Anglin (2003).
51
Al-Eisa, Egan, and Wassersub (2004).
52
Kalick et al. (1998).
53
Grammer and Thornhill (1994).
54
Langlois et al. (1994).
55
Trivers (1972).
56
Pérusse (1993, pp. 273â4).
57
Pérusse (1993, p. 273).
58
Buss and Schmitt (1993).
59
Ellis and Symons (1990).
60
Buss and Schmitt (1993).
61
Salmon and Symons (2001, 2004).
62
Symons (1979, pp. 170â84).
63
Ellis and Symons (1990).
64
Buss and Schmitt (1993).
65
Hejl, Kammer, and Uhl (Forthcoming).
66
Carroll (1999); Gottschall et al. (2004); Thiessen and Umezawa (1998); Wilson (1998, pp. 210â37).
67
Buss (1989).
68
Kenrick and Keefe (1992).
69
Kenrick and Keefe (1992).
70
Abbey (1982).
71
Kanazawa (2006a); Liedtke (2000); Pate (2001); Ream (2000).
72
Haselton (2003); Haselton and Buss (2000).
73
Yamagishi, Jin, and Kiyonari (1999).
[74]
If you are familiar with elementary statistics, you recognize the false-positive and false-negative errors as “Type I” and “Type II” errors.
75
Haselton and Buss (2000, p. Chapter 4); Haselton and Nettle (2006).
76
Yamagishi et al. (Forthcoming).
77
Guthrie (1993).
78
Boyer (2001).
Chapter 4
1
Emlen (1995).
2
Smith (1984, p. 604, figure 1A).
3
Smith (1984, p. 609).
4
Cerda-Flores et al. (1999); Gaulin, McBurney, and Brakeman-Wartell (1997).
5
White (1988).
6
Chisholm and Burbank (1991).
7
Bellis and Baker (1990); Birkhead and Møller (1991).
8
Cartwright (2000, p. References, table 8.1).
9
Gallup et al. (2003, p. 278).
10
Gallup et al. (2003, p. 278).
11
Gallup et al. (2003).
12
Baker and Bellis (1995).
13
Barash and Lipton (2001).
14
Alexander et al. (1979); Leutenegger and Kelly (1977).
15
Alexander et al. (1979, pp. 428â30, table 15-3).
16
Mealey (2000, p. 306).
17
Alexander et al. (1979); Leutenegger and Kelly (1977).
18
Kanazawa and Novak (2005).
19
Silventoinen et al. (2001).
20
Biro et al. (2001); Frisch and Revelle (1970); Helm, Münster, and Schmidt (1995); Jaruratanasirikul, Mo-suwan, and Lebel (1997); Nettle (2002); Okasha et al. (2001).
[21]
There is a third, even newer explanation of the evolution of sexual dimorphism in size (Kanazawa 2005a), although not of the relationship between polygyny and sexual dimorphism. The application of the generalized Trivers-Willard hypothesis (see “Boy or Girl? What Influences the Sex of Your Child?” in chapter 5) suggests that tall and heavy parents (both mothers and fathers) are more likely to have sons, and short and light parents are more likely to have daughters, because large body size is more adaptive for men than for women. Available empirical evidence supports this prediction of the generalized Trivers-Willard hypothesis. Body size(height and weight) are substantially heritable. Sexual dimorphism in size may therefore have evolved through this mechanism
in addition to
the effect of polygyny on the age of puberty.
22
Kirkpatrick (1987); Small (1993); Trivers (1972).
23
Kanazawa and Still (1999).
24
Shaw (1957, p. 254).
25
Dawkins (1986).
[26]
Davies (1989); Orians (1969); Searcy and Yasukawa (1989); Verner (1964); Verner and Willson (1966). Borgerhoff Mulder (1990) is an earlier application of the polygyny threshold model to human society.
27
Lenski (1966, pp. 308â18).
28
Kanazawa and Still (2001).
29
Betzig (1986).
30
Kanazawa (2003a); Pérusse (1993, 1994).
31
Kanazawa and Still (1999).
32
Katzev, Warner, and Acock (1994); Morgan, Lye, and Condran (1988).
33
Draper and Harpending (1982).
34
Thornhill (1976).
35
Sozou and Seymour (2005).
36
Gangestad and Simpson (2000).
37
Draper and Harpending (1982).
38
Trivers (1972).
39
Gangestad and Thornhill (1997).
40
Rhodes, Simmons, and Peters (2005).
41
Gangestad and Simpson (2000, p. 583).
Chapter 5
1
Daly and Wilson (1985).
2
Daly and Wilson (1999).
3
Trivers and Willard (1973).
4
Betzig (1986).
5
Betzig and Weber (1995).
6
Cronk (1989).
7
Voland (1984).
8
Moore (1990, pp. 326â7, figures 1â2).
9
Mueller (1993).
10
Kanazawa (2006c).
11
Ellis and Bonin (2002); Freese and Powell (1999); Keller, Nesse, and Hofferth (2001).
12
Cronk (1991); Gaulin and Robbins (1991); Kanazawa (2001d); Trivers (2002, pp. 120â2).
13
Kanazawa (2005a, 2006b, 2007); Kanazawa and Vandermassen (2005).
14
Baron-Cohen (1999, 2002, 2003); Baron-Cohen and Hammer (1997); Baron-Cohen, Lutchmaya, and Knickmeyer (2004).
15
Kanazawa and Vandermassen (2005).
[16]
The regression equations in Kanazawa and Vandermassen (2005, p. 595, table 1) include control variables for the respondent's education and income (to control for the effect of parental social class predicted in the original Trivers-Willard hypothesis), as well as age, age at first marriage, race, and current marital status. Then, controlling for the number of children of the opposite sex, having a systemizing occupation increases the number of sons by 0.3498 (
p
< 0.01), and having an empathizing occupation increases the number of daughters by 0.3981 (
p
< 0.01).
Let S
O
= the mean number of sons among the general population, D
O
= the mean number of daughters among the general population, S
E
=the mean number of sons among engineers and other systemizers, and D
N
=the mean number of daughters among nurses and other empathizers.
For our computation of S
E
, assume D
O
= D
E
= 1. Then, S
O
= 1.0500, and S
E
= 1.0500 +.3498 = 1.3998. For our computation of D
N
, assume S
O
= S
E
= 1. Then, D
O
= 0.9524, and D
N
= 0.9524 + 0.3981 = 1.3505. We thank Jouni Kuha for help with these computations.
17
Kanazawa (2005a).
18
Chagnon (1997).
19
de Waal (1982).
