A History of the Middle East (79 page)

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Abbas I, of Egypt 69, 97

Abbas I (The Great), Shah of Persia 29, 44, 156

Abbas, Mahmoud 471, 472, 474–5, 499, 507

Abbasid empire 17, 19–20, 22, 25

Abbas Hilmi, Khedive of Egypt 119, 120, 123–4

Abd al-Wahhab. Muhammad Ibn 46

Abduh, Shaikh Muhammad 104, 115, 118, 139

Abdul Aziz, Sultan 82, 89, 90

Abdul Hamid, Sultan 82–95, 102, 104–6, 111–12, 119, 121, 129, 138–46, 147, 149, 162, 183, 242

Abdul Mejid I, Sultan 71

Abdullah, Amir, King of Iraq 205, 206, 209, 210, 233, 235, 236–8, 267, 269–70

Abdullah, Crown Prince, later King, of Saudi Arabia 393, 418, 440, 456, 500, 501, 508

Abdullah, King, of Jordan 476, 478, 479, 505, 510

Abu Dhabi 246, 316, 317–18, 318, 327, 480

Abu Qatada 433

Abukir Bay 50

Aburish, Said 388

Abyssinians 16

Aden 58, 65, 129

Adly Pasha 201

Adnanis 7

al-Afghani, Jamel al-Din 103, 139, 164

Afghanistan 1, 156–62, 373, 427–8, 432–3, 433, 438

African Circle 279, 288, 306

Afro-Asian Conference, Bandung (1955) 280

Agha Khan 161–2, 194

Agha Mohammed 158

AGIP 319

Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud 451, 455, 484–6

Ahmed, Imam, of Yemen 295, 301

Ahmed III, Sultan 45

Ahmed Mirza, Shah of Persia 165, 167

Ain Jalout, Palestine 25

Akhenaten, Pharaoh 2

Alamein, battle of 251

Alawites 22, 154–5, 226, 227, 330, 425

Albright Madelaine 393

Aleppo 22, 175–6, 180

Alexander the Great 7–8, 8

Alexandria 7, 11, 54, 61, 66, 67, 106, 107, 214, 273, 289

Algeria 17, 95, 127, 129, 287, 291, 325, 327, 338, 363, 383, 413–15, 429, 439, 475, 502

Ali, Amir 194

Ali, Iman, cousin of the Prophet 16, 155

Ali, son of King Hussein 209

Ali Bey 48

Ali Pasha 80

Allenby, General (‘The Bull’) 179, 187, 199–203, 213, 217

Amal militia 347, 360

Amer, Field Marshal Abdul Hakim 291, 308, 310

Amini, Ali 367

Amorites 3

Amritsar massacre (1919) 122

Anatolia 78, 85, 89, 91, 93, 170

Anglo-American Middle East Supply Central 251

Anglo-French Joint Note 105

Anglo-Iranian Oil Company 281, 282

Anglo-Kuwaiti Treaty 137

Anglo-Persian Oil Company 167, 238, 239–46

Anglo-Turkish Convention 112

Anglo-Turkish treaty (1838) 64, 74

Annan, Kofi 392

Antioch 7, 11

Antiochus Epiphanes, King 9

Antonius, George 69

Aoun, General Michel 360–1, 362

Arab Bureau 174, 179

Arab Circle 279, 306

Arab League 1, 259, 261, 266, 267, 279, 297, 301, 317, 340, 378, 411

Arab Liberation Army 266

Arab Monetary Fund 384

Arab Revolt 177, 177–8, 179–80, 188

Arab Socialist Union (ASU) 300, 328

Arab Women’s Solidarity Association 431

Arabi, Colonel Ahmed 103–9

Arabia 1; racial types 6–7

Arabian Gulf 7

Arabian-American Oil Company (Aramco) 6, 244

Arabism: and Islam 258

Arab-Israeli Wars: 1948–9 207, 266–8; 1967 Six-Day War 308–9, 312, 313, 315, 342; 1973 Yom Kippur War 320, 331–4, 346; 1969–70 war of attrition 342; 1982 350–1; 1990s 395

‘arabization’ 17, 18

Arafat, Yassir 313, 344–7, 351, 353–9, 371, 378, 397–9, 402, 408, 410

Aref, Colonel 298, 302, 303

Armaeans 3

Armed Islamic Group (GIA) 429

Armenia/Armenians 18–19, 84–5, 92, 92–3, 93, 134, 144, 148, 156, 170, 191

Armenian Revolutionary Federation 92

Arslan, Arp 22–3

Asia Minor 13

Al-Assad, Bashar 416–17, 438–9, 476–7, 477, 500–1

al-Assad, Hafez 22, 315, 330, 334–7, 353, 354, 373, 399, 412, 416

Assyria 5

Aswan 114

Aswan dam 288

Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal 142, 165, 171, 180, 189–91, 194–6, 209, 225, 240, 259, 260, 284, 363, 364, 425

Atiya, Abdel Salam Faraj 424–5

Attlee Clement 263

Austria 41

Austro-Hungary 94, 126–7

Ayyubid dynasty 25

Azerbaijan 281, 285

Aziz, Sultan Abdul 80

Azm family 47, 62

Azzam, Abdul Rahman 260, 279

Baath Party 259, 293, 295, 297, 298, 303, 304, 323, 324, 330, 373

Babi movement 162

Babylon/Babylonians 3, 5, 7

Badr, Imam 301

Baghdad 17, 20, 21–2, 22, 40, 135–6, 155, 170, 178, 180, 255, 443, 444, 445, 446–7, 450, 465

Baghdad Pact 279, 282, 285, 290, 293

Bahais 162

Bahrain 44, 244, 317, 318, 417, 422, 441, 456, 481, 488–9, 504, 505–6, 509

Bahrain Petroleum Company (Bapco) 244

Baker, James 395–6

Baldwin, Stanley 215

Balfour, Arthur 124, 126, 185, 198, 199

Balfour Declaration 181, 183, 185, 186, 204, 205, 230, 231, 235

Balkans 1, 82, 83–4, 85, 129, 135, 143, 146

Bandar Abbas 44

al-Banna, Hassan 219, 271, 425

Barak, Ehud 399, 404–7

Barbary states 29

Bashir II, Amir 130–1

Basra 178, 248, 375, 447, 464

Bayezid I 27, 35

Bechtel Corporation 244–5

Begin, Menachem 333, 336–40, 349, 352

Beirut 131, 187, 254, 347, 351, 360, 362

Belgium 83

Ben Gurion, David 261, 261–2, 287

Berlin, Congress of (1878) 84, 85, 89, 92

Berlin, Treaty of 85, 86

Bernedotte, Count Folke 267–8

Berytus (later Beirut) 8

Bevin, Ernest 256–7, 263–4

Bilad as-Sudan 58–9

Bin Abdelaziz, Abdullah 480–2

Bin Ali, Abdullah 140

Bin Ali, Ali 140

Bin Ali, Feisal 140

Bin Ali, Hussein 140, 147

Bin Laden, Usama 400, 424–5, 427, 428, 432–3, 434–5, 436–7, 440, 499

Bin Sultan, Bandar 440

birth rate 421

Bismarck, Otto von 84, 85, 92, 94, 95, 105

Black Saturday 273

Black September 345

Bremer, Paul 443–4, 445, 446–7, 449

Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of 190

Brezhnev, Leonid 329

Britain: maritime and commercial dominance 10, 41, 65; alliance against Napoleon 50, 51; war with Russia (1854–6) 75; and Persian Gulf 129, 136; as protector of the Druze 131; and Suez Canal 140, 215; declares war on Germany 152; captures Mohammereh 160; seizes Kharg Island 160; agreement with Russia (1907) 165–6; occupies part of Persia 167–8; occupies Egypt (1882) 170; land in Gallipoli 171; Arab policy 173; takes over Dardanelle Straits 190; and Palestine mandate 205, 207, 211, 230–8, 263, 265, 266; and Iraq mandate 207, 208, 211, 222–4; and Egyptian independence 213, 214, 216–18, 219, 256; Egypt’s importance as military base 221, 247; White Paper on Palestine (1939) 234, 261, 262–3; crisis with Farouk 250; and Iran 252–3, 281; Zionists turn against 261–2; decline in role in Middle East 263, 280, 315; fails in attempt at combined Middle Eastern command 272; Baghdad Pact 279; and Lavon affair 287; response to invasion of Kuwait 378; sanctuary for
jihadi
exiles 433–4

British Petroleum 167, 465

Bunche, Ralph 268

Burmah Oil Company 166

Bush, George 378, 382, 385, 396, 412, 419

Bush, George W. 395, 410–11, 439, 457, 461, 488, 491

Butler, Richard 391, 392

Byzantine Empire 13, 16, 22–3, 25, 26

Caesar, Julius 8

Cairo 1, 21–2, 26, 40, 108, 199, 206–7, 216, 251, 256, 260, 273, 340, 340–1

Caisse of Public Debt 101, 109–10, 113

Camp David agreements (1978) 338–9, 340, 405–8

Canan/Canaanites 3, 4

Capitulations 41, 75, 78–9, 88, 91, 97, 109, 113, 120, 127, 151, 196, 217

Carter, Jimmy 336, 338–9, 349, 370

Carthage 9

Catherine the Great Empress 38–9, 47, 75

Caucasus 170, 258

Chalabi, Ahmed 388

Chaldean Empire 5

Chamoun, Camille 292, 294, 295, 296

Chancellor, Sir John 232

Charles V, Emperor 30

Chehab, General Fuad 296

China National Petroleum Company 465–6

Christianity 2, 4, 10, 12

Christopher, Warren 399

Churchill, Winston 167, 184, 201–2, 205, 206–7, 213, 250, 253, 256, 260, 262, 272, 278

CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) 282, 294, 348

Clemenceau, Georges 205

Clinton, Hillary 509

Clinton, President Bill 389–90, 392, 393, 397–400, 403, 405

Cold War 256, 263, 272, 280, 282, 288, 293, 294, 317

Committee for the Defence of Legitimate Rights (CDLR) 453

Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 141, 144, 145–53, 190

communications revolution 453–4

Compagnie Française des Petroles (CFP) 243

Concert of Europe 77

Congo (Zaire) 306

Constantine the Great 13

Constantinople 13, 16, 25, 27, 41, 178

Constantinople Conference (1876) 86

Corn Laws 90

Corrective Movement 329

Council of the Public Debt 90

Crane, Charles 204

Crassus 8

Crete 59, 61, 67, 81, 85, 248

Crimea 38–9, 75

Crimean War 160

Cromer, Lord 110–24, 126, 128, 183, 197, 216, 220

Crusades 23–5, 40–1

Ctesiphon 16

Curzon, Lord 163, 201, 222, 238, 242

Cyprus 59, 85, 183

Cyrus II ‘the Great’, King 5

Czechoslovakia 287

Damascus 3, 10, 17, 20, 26, 40, 47–8, 180, 205, 210, 226, 254, 271

D’Arcy, William Knox 166, 166–7

Dardanelles 61, 76, 152, 153, 171, 173, 178, 190, 191

Dayan, General Moshe 309, 333, 342–3, 343

Declaration of the Seven 188

Deutsche Bank 90, 242

al-Din, Prince Sabah 149–50

Disraeli, Benjamin 82, 84, 85, 100, 112

Doha agreement 459

Druze 22, 33, 40, 41, 62, 131, 154–5, 360, 457

Dubai 316, 480

Duelfer, Charles 392

Dufferin and Ava, Frederick, 1st Marquis of 109, 116

Dulles, John Foster 283, 289

East India Company 44, 51, 156

economy 419–23

Eden, Anthony 260, 272, 278, 288, 289

Edward VII, King 142

Egypt (main references) 475; empire in decline 5–6; as a Roman Colony 10; Persians occupy 13; invaded by Fatimids 21; Mamluke rule 26; Ottoman rule 33–4; and Suez Canal 48, 69, 98–101; strategic importance 48–9, 221, 247; and Napoleon 48–51; Britain invades 85; under British rule 95, 109; British occupation 170, 203, 213, 277; and Sudan 202–3, 217, 277; independence 213, 216–18; 1952 revolution 220; declares war on Germany 255; and League of Arab States 257; Sidky-Bevin agreement 257; and Protocol of Alexandria 261; Black Saturday 273; republic proclaimed (1953) 275; British leave (1956) 278; Israeli raid on Gaza 287; and Aswan dam 289; new Republican Constitution 291; economic blockade of 293, 294; dependence on US 306, 340, 341, 342; Israel attacks Egyptian airfields 309; Soviet arms to 310–11, 311; accepts Rogers Plan
311; peace with Israel 315;
infitah
policy 335; and Camp David agreements (1978) 338–9; isolation of 340; Treaty of Washington (1979) 340; and Iran-Iraq war 373; response to invasion of Kuwait 378; and Islamic fundamentalist threat 427–8, 429–30; and the communications revolution 454; and Gazan émigrés 472; elections, 2005 475–6; succession 501

Egyptian Federation of Industries 218

Eighth Army 251

Eisenhower, Dwight D. 282–3, 289, 290, 294, 306

Eisenhower Doctrine 294

Ekeus, Rolf 391–2, 392

English Zionist Federation 183

Enlightenment 80

Entente Cordiale (1904) 113, 123

Enver Bey, Pasha Major 142, 143, 148, 150, 151, 152, 170

Eritrea 247

Ethiopia 216

Euphrates River 2

European Economic Community 320, 350, 373

European Investment Bank 422

Fahd, King of Saudi Arabia 323, 351, 378, 412, 436

Failaka, Kuwait 7

Fallujah 447, 454

Fanon, Frantz 363

Farouk, King 210, 216–21, 249, 257, 260, 267, 271, 273–4

Fatah 147, 313, 471–2, 490–1

Fath Ali, Shah of Persia 159, 160

Fatimid empire 21–2, 22–3

Feisal, Emir (King Feisal I of Iraq) 179–80, 187, 204–7, 223, 224, 258, 260

Feisal, Emir (King Feisal I of Saudi Arabia) 208, 210, 212, 295, 305, 312, 313, 321, 323, 346

Feisal, Crown Prince 292, 295

Feisal bin Turki 136

Fertile Crescent 2, 18, 135

Fez summit (1982) 352

Finkenstein, France-Prussian Treaty of (1807) 159

First World War 113, 126–7, 152–3.
see also
individual countries

FIS (Islamic Salvation Front) 429

Foreign Office 214, 220, 260

France/French: Arabs withdraw from 21; in Ottoman Empire 41; dispute with Russia over control of Palestine 75–6; war with Russia (1854–6) 75–6; and Algeria 95, 363; plans attack on British in India 159; and Maronites 177; and Sykes-Picot agreement 178;
casualties in Europe 180; Lebanese mandate 205, 225, 253–4; Syrian mandate 205, 206, 225–6, 253–4, 293; and oil 242; fall of 248; alliance with Israel 287–8, 289; contingent attacked in Beirut 353; response to invasion of Kuwait 378

Francis Ferdinand, Archduke 152

Francis I of France 306

Free French 248–9, 253–4, 254

Free Officers movement 220, 271, 272–5

French Revolution 46–7, 72, 80, 143

Front of Steadfastness 338

Fuad I, King of Egypt 127, 172, 199, 202, 214–17

Fuad Pasha 80

Fustat 21

Gali, Boutros 124

Gallipoli 171, 173

Gaulle, General Charles de 248, 253–4, 255, 309

Gaza 267, 287, 290, 342, 346, 350, 359, 463, 466–7, 468, 472–3, 488, 492–3, 496–7, 503

Gaza Strip 268

Gemayel, Bashir 351

Gemayl, Amin 353

Genghis Khan 25

geography 2–3

George V, King 127

Germany 94–5, 126–7, 136, 140, 150, 152, 188, 252