A People's History of the World: From the Stone Age to the New Millennium (92 page)

32
The most notable of the recent ‘revisionists’ is F Furet,
Interpreting the French Revolution
(Cambridge, 1981).

33
A Soboul,
French Revolution
, p99.

34
Quoted in A Soboul,
French Revolution
, p255.

35
Quoted in A Soboul,
French Revolution
, p307.

36
A Soboul,
French Revolution
, p309.

37
Quoted in A Soboul,
French Revolution
, p325.

38
For details of the loans and taxes, see P Kropotkin,
The Great French Revolution
(London, 1971), pp410-411.

39
G Lefebvre,
The French Revolution
, vol II (New York, 1964), p57.

40
According to P Kropotkin,
The Great,
p404.

41
Quoted in P Kropotkin,
The Great
, p387.

42
According to P Kropotkin,
The Great
, p387.

43
A Soboul,
French Revolution
, p339.

44
For details, see A Soboul,
French Revolution
, p342.

45
A Soboul,
French Revolution
, p386.

46
Quoted in H G Schenk, ‘Revolutionary Influences and Conservatism in Literature and Thought’, in C W Crawley (ed),
Cambridge New Modern History
, vol IX (Cambridge, 1965), p91.

47
See his
Class Struggle in the First French Republic
(London, 1977).

48
G W F Hegel,
The Philosophy of History
(New York, 1956), p447.

49
Quoted in H G Schenk, ‘Revolutionary Influences’, p100.

50
G Williams,
Artisans and Sans-culottes
(London, 1981), p58.

51
G Williams,
Artisans
, pp59, 62-66. ‘Planting the Liberty Tree’, in E P Thompson’s classic
The Making of the English Working Class
, ch 5 (New York, 1966), contains a comprehensive account of all these developments.

52
According to G Williams,
Artisans
, p78.

53
For a full account see E P Thompson’s
The Making
, pp73-74.

54
See the account in J D Mackie,
A History of Scotland
(Harmondsworth, 1973), pp311-313.

55
T Moore,
The Life and Death of Lord Edward Fitzgerald
, vol 1 (London, 1831), p204.

56
According to F Campbell,
The Dissenting Voice, Protestant Democracy in Ulster
(Belfast, 1991), p51.

57
F Campbell,
The Dissenting Voice
, p98.

58
The figure is given in T Gray,
The Orange Order
(London, 1972), p69. T Packenham gives the number killed in the rebellion as between 30,000 and 70,000—see
The Year of Liberty
(London, 1978), p392.

59
F Campbell,
The Dissenting Voice
, p83.

60
C Fitzgibbon, quoted in T Gray,
The Orange Order
, p68.

61
Quoted in H G Schenk, ‘Revolutionary Influences’, p100.

62
Quoted in H G Schenk, ‘Revolutionary Influences’, p98.

63
Quoted in J Keane,
Tom Paine
, p323.

64
Quoted in H G Schenk, ‘Revolutionary Influences’, p106.

65
Quoted in H G Schenk, ‘Revolutionary Influences’, p105.

66
E Gibbon,
Autobiography
, quoted in P Gray,
Voltaire’s Politics
(New Jersey, 1959), p259.

67
Both Coleridge and Hölderlin are quoted in H G Schenk, ‘Revolutionary Influences’, p100.

68
See A Desmond and J Moore,
Darwin
(London, 1992).

69
Quoted in R M Hartwell, ‘Economic Change in England and Europe 1780-1830’, in
Cambridge New Modern History
, vol IX, p42.

70
Such facts suggest that the pre-Columbian civilisations of the Americas may not have been as irrational or as impeded by their failure to use the wheel, since nature did not provide them with potentially domesticable draft animals to pull wheeled vehicles.

71
The first railway ran from Stockport to Darlington and opened in 1825, but most of its motive power came from stationary engines, not locomotives. See P Mathias,
The First Industrial Nation
(London, 1983), p255.

72
Figures from E Hobsbawm,
Industry and Empire
(Harmondsworth, 1971), p86.

73
For a full account of this transformation in attitudes to time, see E P Thompson, ‘Time, Work and Industrial Capitalism’, in
Customs in Common
(London, 1992), pp352-403.

74
Evidence to Poor Law Report of 1832, quoted in D McNally,
Against the Market
(London, 1993), p101.

75
J Thelwall,
The Rights of Nature
(London, 1796), pp21, 24, quoted in E P Thompson,
Making
, p185.

76
See, for instance, D Williams,
John Frost, a Study in Chartism
(New York, 1969).

77
See M Jenkins,
The General Strike of 1842
(London, 1980); for a contemporary account, see
The Trial of Fergus O’Connor and Fifty Eight Others
(Manchester, 1843, reprinted New York 1970).

78
For a full account, see J Saville,
1848
(Cambridge, 1987).

79
Quoted in
Cambridge New Modern History
, vol IX, p59.

80
According to G Mayer,
Frederick Engels
(London, 1936), p44.

81
For Engels’ interest in and admiration for Owen, see G Mayer,
Frederick Engels,
p45. For his view of the influence of political economy,
The Condition of the English Working Class
, translated in K Marx and F Engels,
Collected Works,
vol 4 (London, 1975), p527, and for his first critique of it, a year after arriving in Manchester, see his ‘Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy’, in K Marx and F Engels,
Collected Works
, vol 3 (London, 1975), p418.

82
Published today in various editions as the
Paris Manuscripts
,
The 1844 Manuscripts
or sometimes simply as
The Early Writings
.

83
All the quotes are from K Marx,
1844 Manuscripts
, in K Marx and F Engels,
Collected Works
, vol 3.

84
This Marx does in the three volumes of
Capital
. For more in-depth accounts of his ideas, see my book
The Economics of the Madhouse
(London, 1995), the first chapter of my
Explaining the Crisis, a Marxist Reappraisal
(London, 1999) and A Callinicos’s
The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx
(London, 1999).

85
Most English translations use the word ‘man’ here and follow it up with the pronoun ‘he’. But Marx in fact uses the German word ‘Menschen’ (humans) not ‘Mann’ (man).

86
Quoted in R Price (ed),
Documents on the French Revolution of 1848
(London, 1996), p46-47.

87
D Blackbourn,
The Fontana History of Germany, 1780-1918
(London, 1997), p147.

88
R Price (ed),
Documents
, p9. For the German Rhineland, see J Sperber,
Rhineland Radicals
(New Jersey, 1993), pp54-59.

89
R Price (ed),
Documents
, p11.

90
C Pouthas, ‘The Revolutions of 1848’, in
Cambridge New Modern History,
vol X, p393.

91
C Pouthas, ‘The Revolutions of 1848’, p394.

92
R Price (ed),
Documents
, p17.

93
These are the figure given by Frederick Engels writing at the time in
Neue Rheinische Zeitung
, 2 July 1848, translated in K Marx and F Engels,
Collected Works
, vol 7 (London, 1977), p161.

94
Flaubert’s novel
Sentimental Education
includes a sympathetic account of their attitudes, as well as caricatures of the meetings of the revolutionary clubs.

95
R Price (ed),
Documents
.

96
F Engels,
Neue Rheinische Zeitung
, 27 June 1848, translated in K Marx and F Engels,
Collected Works
, vol 7 (London, 1977), p131.

97
Quoted in R Price (ed),
Documents
, p20.

98
Quoted in F Mehring,
Absolutism and Revolution in Germany, 1525-1848
(London, 1975), p214.

99
Neue Rheinische Zeitung
, 31 December 1848, translated in
Collected Works
, vol 7.

100
All the figures here come from D Blackbourn,
Fontana History of Germany
, p180.

101
It is this revolt which features in the film
The Leopard.

102
The words used by the prince in the film
The Leopard
.

103
Speech in debate with Douglass, quoted in J M McPherson,
The Struggle for Equality
(New Jersey, 1992), p11.

104
See for instance his speech of 4 July 1861, quoted in J M McPherson,
Battle Cry of Freedom
(London, 1988), p312.

105
Quoted in J M McPherson,
Battle Cry
, p46.

106
Marx noted this at the time. See his article for the paper
Die Presse
of 7 November 1861, translated in K Marx and F Engels,
Collected Works
, vol 19 (London, 1984), p50.

107
J M McPherson,
The Struggle for Equality
, p47.

108
Quoted in J M McPherson,
The Struggle for Equality,
p47.

109
J M McPherson,
The Struggle for Equality
, p51.

110
J M McPherson,
The Struggle for Equality
, p82.

111
J M McPherson,
The Struggle for Equality,
pp128-129

112
Even Frederick Engels could write to Marx (30 July 1862) that he expected the North to get a ‘thrashing’ and expressed doubts about the North’s ability to ‘suppress the rebellion’ (9 September 1862). Marx by contrast was ‘prepared to bet my life…these fellows [the South] will come off worst…You allow yourself to be influenced by the military aspect of things a little too much’ (10 September 1862). K Marx and F Engels,
Collected Works
, vol 41 (Moscow, 1985), pp414-416.

113
Marx quotes the speech at length in his article for
Die Presse
of 22 August 1862, in K Marx and F Engels,
Collected Works
, vol 19, p234-235. Parts are also quoted in J M McPherson,
The Struggle for Equality
, p113.

114
K Marx, article in
Die Presse
, 12 October 1862, translated in K Marx and F Engels,
Collected Works
, vol 19, p250.

115
See, for instance, his satirical novels
Zadig
and
The Princess of Babylon
.

116
A Smith,
The Wealth of Nations
(London, 1986), pp174-175.

117
‘Niggers’ is the common expression for the ‘natives’ used by the characters in Kipling’s short stories. ‘Wogs’ was a convenient catch-all insult for anyone unlucky enough to be colonised by the British Empire.

118
B Stein,
A History of India
(Oxford, 1998), p202, even goes so far as to speak of ‘the development of an indigenous capitalist class in India well before the onset of formal colonisation’. I am not knowledgeable enough to judge whether the characterisation is correct. I suspect, however, that what is being described is merchant and finance capital, such as that which characterised Europe from the middle of the feudal period onwards, rather than industrial or agrarian capitalism, except in the most embryonic of forms. Some historians also argue that the religious and peasant revolts could have opened the way for full capitalist development; others deny it vehemently. Again, I am in no position to make a judgement.