A People's History of the World: From the Stone Age to the New Millennium (93 page)

119
K Marx, ‘The Revolt in the Indian Army’,
New York Daily Tribune
, 15 July 1857, contained in K Marx and F Engels,
Collected Works
, vol 15 (Moscow, 1986), p297.

120
According to B Stein,
A History
, p248.

121
Figures for the early years of direct imperial rule and for the years after the 1890 s are given in B Stein,
A History
, pp257, 263.

122
These are the figures given by B Stein,
A History
, p262.

123
A ‘Censor’, ‘Memorial to the Emperor’, translated in F Schurmann and O Scholl,
Imperial China
(Harmondsworth, 1977), p139.

124
These are the explanations both of the editors and of Tsiang Ting-fu in F Schurmann and O Scholl,
Imperial China
, pp126, 133, 139.

125
This is the argument put very strongly by J Gernet,
A History of Chinese Civilisation
(Cambridge, 1996), pp539-541.

126
W Franke, ‘The T’ai-p’ing Rebellion’, extract in F Schurmann and O Scholl,
Imperial China,
pp170-183.

127
The figure is given in P A Kuhn, ‘The T’ai-p’ing Rebellion’, in J R Fairbank (ed),
Cambridge History of China
, vol 10 (Cambridge, 1978), p309.

128
J Batou, ‘Muhammed Ali’s Egypt, 1805-48’, in J Batou (ed),
Between Development and Underdevelopment
(Geneva, 1991), p183-207. Some economic historians (for instance, D Landes in
The Wealth and Poverty of Nations
(London, 1998)) challenge this picture of advance. They point to inefficiencies, high real cost and the low quality of output. But similar points can be made about early industrialisation in other countries, like Japan in the 1880 s, that later experienced international competitive success. One big difference between them and Egypt was that they were more insulated from direct foreign competition and were more easily able to evade direct western dictation of their trade policies.

129
Quoted in J Batou, ‘Muhammed Ali’s Egypt’, p205.

130
M Hane,
Modern Japan
(Boulder, 1992), p52-53.

131
M Hane,
Modern Japan
, p71.

132
T Gautier, quoted in A Horne,
The Fall of Paris
(London, 1968), p26.

133
A Horne,
The Fall of Paris
, p53.

134
See, for instance, the list of prices given by A Horne,
The Fall of Paris
, p254.

135
Quoted in A Horne,
The Fall of Paris
, p328.

136
P O Lissagaray,
History of the Paris Commune
, translated by E Marx (London, 1976), p65.

137
P O Lissagaray,
History of the Paris Commune
, p65.

138
K Marx, ‘The Civil War in France’, in K Marx and F Engels,
Collected Works
, vol 22 (London, 1986), pp333-334.

139
K Marx, ‘The Civil War in France’, p339.

140
Quoted in A Horne,
The Fall of Paris
, p551.

141
The
Times
, 29 May and 1 June 1871, quoted in A Horne,
The Fall of Paris,
p555.

142
A Horne,
The Fall of Paris
, p556.

143
Louise Michel’s trial is described in many places. See, for instance, P O Lissagaray,
History of the Paris Commune
, pp343-344.

144
A Horne,
The Fall of Paris
, p363.

145
K Marx, letter to Kugelmann of 12 April 1871, in K Marx and F Engels,
On the Paris Commune
(Moscow, 1976), p284.

146
K Marx, letter to Kugelmann of 17 April 1871, in K Marx and F Engels,
On the Paris Commune
, p285.

Part seven: The century of hope and horror

1
Figures given in G Stedman Jones,
Outcast London (
Harmondsworth, 1976), p132.

2
See tables 13 and 3, in E Hobsbawm,
Industry and Empire
(Harmondsworth, 1971).

3
OECD figures.

4
G B Longstaff in September 1893, quoted in G Stedman Jones,
Outcast
, p128.

5
Quoted in G Stedman Jones,
Outcast
, p129.

6
Charity Organising Society report of 1870-71, quoted in G Stedman Jones,
Outcast
, p266.

7
In practice, Maxwell used mathematical approaches that contradicted this model and laid the ground for some of the very different models that were to prevail in the 20 th century. But it was his original model that was to dominate much scientific thinking for a generation. See W Berkson,
Fields of Force
(London, 1974), chs 5, 6 and 7, especially pp150-155.

8
As with Maxwell’s model of the universe, there were elements in Freud’s theory which were subject to a very different approach. By the 1920 s psychoanalysis was often seen as justifying irrationalist challenges to the mechanical-determinist approach. But Freud’s own starting point was certainly based on mechanical determinism. See, for instance, the accounts of his early surgical attempts to deal with hysterical symptoms in J Masson,
The Assault on Truth
(Harmondsworth, 1984), pp55-106.

9
Quoted in R Miliband,
Capitalist Democracy in Britain
(Oxford, 1982), fn 2, p22.

10
See R Harrison,
Before the Socialists
(London, 1965), pp69-78.

11
M Cowling,
1867, Disraeli, Gladstone and Revolution
, quoted in R Miliband,
Capitalist Democracy
, p25.

12
K Marx, second draft for
The Civil War in France
, translated in K Marx and F Engels,
Collected Works
, vol 22 (London, 1985).

13
M Cowling,
Disraeli,
p49.

14
R Miliband,
Capitalist Democracy
, p28.

15
Hanham, quoted in R Miliband,
Capitalist Democracy
, p27.

16
R T McKenzie,
British Political Parties
(London, 1963), p15.

17
On this, see G Stedman Jones,
Outcast
, pp344, 348.

18
Britain, as the oldest industrial capitalism, also had one of the oldest nationalisms from above. E P Thompson showed how the government sponsored popular nationalist organisations to counter British Jacobinism in the 1790 s. See E P Thompson,
The Making of the English Working Class
(New York, 1966). More recently Linda Colley has emphasised the scale of developing national feeling from the mid-1750 s onwards. See L Colley,
Britons
(London, 1994). Unfortunately, her approach is one dimensional and fails to see what Thompson did note, the counter-currents to nationalism that always existed.

19
E Bernstein,
Evolutionary Socialism
(London, 1909), pxi.

20
E Bernstein,
Evolutionary Socialism
, p159.

21
E Bernstein,
Evolutionary Socialism
, p160.

22
R Luxemburg,
Social Reform or Social Revolution
(Colombo, 1966).

23
B Vandervort,
Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa 1830-1914
(London, 1998), p27.

24
Nicola Labanca, quoted in B Vandervort,
Wars of Imperial Conquest
, p164.

25
B Vandervort,
Wars of Imperial Conquest
, p177. See also T Packenham,
The Scramble for Africa
(London, 1992), pp539-548.

26
T Packenham,
The Scramble
, p546.

27
T Packenham,
The Scramble
, p652.

28
T Packenham,
The Scramble
, p600. On Leopold’s philanthropic, anti-slavery claims, see pp11-23.

29
Quoted in T Packenham,
The Scramble
, p22.

30
Figures from H Feis,
Europe: The World’s Banker, 1879-1914
, quoted in M Kidron, ‘Imperialism, the Highest Stage but One’, in
International Socialism 9
(first series), p18.

31
For a longer discussion of the economics of imperialism, see my book
Explaining the Crisis
(London, 1999), pp35-36—and, for a reply to counter-arguments on the empirical data, fn 50, p159.

32
Details from L Derfler,
Paul Lafargue and the Flowering of French Socialism
(Harvard, 1998), pp48 and 90.

33
See L Trotsky,
Results and Prospects
, in
The Permanent Revolution and Results and Prospects
(London, 1962). For his general account of this revolution, see L Trotsky,
1905
(New York, 1972).

34
Full title:
The Mass Strike, the Political Party and the Trade Unions
(London, 1986).

35
According to A Sayers, ‘The Failure of Italian Socialism’,
International Socialism
37 (first series).

36
R Luxemburg, writing in the spring of 1915, in
The Junius Pamphlet
(London, 1967), p1.

37
L Trotsky,
My Life
(New York, 1960) pp233-234.

38
J Canning (ed),
Living History: 1914
(London, 1967), p240.

39
V Serge,
Memoirs of a Revolutionary
(London, 1963), p47.

40
Quoted in L Trotsky,
My Life
, p233.

41
D Blackbourne,
The Fontana History of Germany 1780-1918
(London, 1977), pp461-462.

42
A Shlyapnikov,
On the Eve of 1917
(London, 1982), p18.

43
R Fox,
Smoky Crusade
(London, 1938), p192.

44
L Trotsky,
My Life
, pp233-4.

45
These are quoted in J Joll,
Europe Since 1870
(London, 1983), p194.

46
Keir Hardie, quoted in R Miliband,
Parliamentary Socialism
(London, 1975), p44. For an account of Kautsky’s position, see M Salvadori,
Karl Kautsky and the Socialist Revolution 1880-1938
(London, 1979), pp183-185.

47
According to D Blackbourne,
The Fontana History of Germany
, p475.

48
Quoted in D MacIntyre,
The Great War, Causes and Consequences
(Glasgow, 1979), p63.

49
D MacIntyre,
The Great War
, p64.

50
D Blackbourne,
The Fontana History of Germany
, pp488-489.

51
For details, see D Blackbourne,
The Fontana History of Germany
, pp480, 482.

52
Figures given in J Kocka,
Facing Total War
(London, 1984), p23.

53
J Kocka,
Facing Total War
, p17.

54
D MacIntyre,
The Great War
, p61.

55
Quoted in W Allison and J Fairley,
The Monocled Mutineer
(London, 1986), p68.

56
For an account of this at Christmas 1916, see extracts from the diary of Lieutenant William St Leger, in M Moynihan (ed),
People at War 1914-1918
(London, 1988), p52.

57
There is a full account, based on interviews with participants, in W Allison and J Fairley,
The Monocled Mutineer
, pp81-111

58
Translated in V I Lenin,
Collected Works
, vol 23 (Moscow, 1964), p253.

59
Known as St Petersburg before August 1914.

60
The date is according to the Julian calendar still used in Russia at the time. According to the reformed Gregorian calendar used in the West it was in March.

61
According to the testimony of Kayurov, mentioned in L Trotsky,
The History of the Russian Revolution
(London, 1965), p121.

62
S A Smith, ‘Petrograd in 1917: the View from Below’, in D H Kaiser (ed),
The Workers’ Revolution in Russia of 1917
(Cambridge, 1987), p61.