A Short History of Chinese Philosophy (42 page)

But Nirvana is not something external to and altogether different from the Wheel of Birth and Death, nor is the reality of the Buddha-nature external to and altogether different from the phenomenal world.

Once one gains Sudden Enlightenment, the latter is at once the former. Thus Tao—sheng says: The Enlightenment of Mahayana Buddhism is not to be sought outside the Wheel of Birth and Death. Within it one is enlightened by the affairs of birth and death." ** The Buddhists use the metaphor of "reaching the other shore" to express the idea of achieving Nirvana. Tao-sheng says: As to reaching the other shore, if one reaches it, one is not reaching the other shore. Both not-reaching and not—not—reaching are really reaching. This shore here means

* QnolpH in the Nifih-pan-ching Ctli-cfiieh or Collected Commentaries to the Parinirvana Sutra, chiton I. ** Quoted in Seng-(!hao's Wei-mou-ching Chit, or Cftmmenlxiry ta the Vimakikirti Sutra, chikvi 7-412 . THE FOUNDATION OF CHINESE BUDDHISM

birth and death; the other shore means Nirvana." (Ibid., chtian 9.) Again he says: If one sees Buddha, one is not seeing Buddha. When one sees there is no Buddha, one is really seeing Buddha." (Ibid.)

This is perhaps also the meaning of another theory of Tao-sheng, that for Buddha there is no "Pure Land or other world. The world of Buddha is simply here in this present world.

In an essay titled The Treasure House, which has been traditionally attributed to Seng-chao but seems to be a forgery, it is said: "Suppose there is a man who, in a treasure house of golden utensils, sees the golden utensils, but pays no attention to their shapes and features. Or, even if he does pay attention to their shapes and features, he still recognizes that they are all gold. He is not confused by their varying appearances, and therefore is able to rid himself of their L superficial J

distinctions. He always sees that their underlying substance is gold, and does not suffer any illusion.

This is an illustration of what a sage is. (Ch. 3-)

This saying may not come from Seng—chao, but its metaphor has been constantly used by later Buddhists. The reality of the Buddha-nature is itself the phenomenal world, just as the golden utensils are themselves the gold. There is no other reality outside the phenomenal world, just as there is no other gold besides the golden utensils. Some people, in their Ignorance, see only the phenomenal world, but not the reality of the Buddha-nature. Other people, in their Enlightenment, see the Buddha-nature, but this Buddha-nature is still the phenomenal world. What these two kinds of people see is the same, but what one person sees in his Enlightenment has a significance quite different from what the other person sees in his Ignorance. This is the meaning ol a common saying of Chinese Buddhism: When ignorant, one is a common man; when enlightened, one is a sage.

Another theory of Tao—sheng is that even the icchantika (i.e., the being who opposes Buddhism) is capable of achieving Buddhahood. This is the logical conclusion of the assertion that every sentient being has the Buddha-nature. But it was in direct contradiction to the Parinirvana Sutra, as known at that time, and consequently Tao-sheng, because he uttered it, was banished for some time irom the capital, Nanking. Many years later, however, when the complete text of the Parinirvana Sutra was translated, Tao-sheng' s theory was found to be confirmed by one of its passages. His biographer, Hui-chiao (died 554), wrote: "Because his interpretation of the icchantika came to be established by Scriptural evidence, his theories of Sudden Enlightenment and that a good deed entails no retribution, also came to be highly honored by the Buddhists of the time. (Kao—seng Chilan or Biographies of Eminent Buddhist Monks, chiian 7) Hui—chiao also reports another saying of Tao—sheng: The symbol serves to express an idea, and is to be discarded once the idea has been undei— stood. Words serve to explain thought, and ought to be silenced once the thoughts have been absorbed....It is only those who can grasp the fish and

414 THE FOUNDATION OF CHINESE BUDDHISM

discard the fishing net that are qualified to seek the truth.' (Ibid.) This figure of speech refers to a saying in the Chuang-tzu which says: "The fishing net serves to catch fish. Let us take the fish and forget the net. The snare serves to catch rabbits. Let us take the rabbit and forget the snare." (Ch. 2-6.) Chinese philosophical tradition makes use of a term called the "net of words. According to this tradition, the best statement is one that does not "fall into the net of words."

We have seen that in Chi-tsang's theory of the three levels of double truth, when one reaches the third level one simply has nolhing to say. On that level there is no danger of falling into the net of words.

When Tao-sheng speaks of the Buddha-nature, he almost falls into this net, because by speaking of it as the Mind, he gives people the impression that the limitations of definition can be imposed on it. In this respect he is influenced by the Parinirvana Sutra, which emphasizes the Buddha-nature, and so he approaches the Hsing tsung or School of Universal Mind.

Thus, as we shall see in the next chapter, by the lime of Tao—sheng, the theoretical background for Ch anism had been prepared. The Ch'an Masters themselves, however, were needed to put the theories described in the present chapter into high relief.

In what has been told here we can also find the germ of the Neo-Confu-ciamsm of several centuries later. The theory of Tao—sheng that every man can become a Buddha reminds us of the theory of Mencius that every man can become a Yao or Shun (two traditional sage-kings). (Mencius, VIb, 2..) Mencius also stated that by fully developing our mind, we come to know our nature; and by fully developing our nature, we come to know Heaven. (Men— cius, Vila, 1.) But what he called mind and nature are both psychological and not metaphysical. By giving them a metaphysical interpretation along the line suggested by Tao-sheng's theory, one arrives at Neo-Confucianism.

The idea of the Universal Mind is a contribution of India to Chinese philosophy. Before the introduction of Buddhism, there was in Chinese philosophy only the mind, but not the Mind. The Tao of the Taoists is the mystery of mysteries, as Lao Tzu put it, yet it is not Mind. After the period dealt with in this chapter, there is, in Chinese philosophy, not only mind, but also Mind.

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THE FOUNDATION OF CHINESE BUDDHISM

CHAPTER 22

M: THE PHILOSOPHY OF SILENCE

1 HE Chinese term Ch an (Japanese reading: Zen) or Ch an—ra is a phonetic rendering of

the Sanskrit Dhyana, which is usually translated in English as Meditation. The traditional account of the origin of the Ch' an or Zen school is that the Buddha, in addition to his Scriptures, possessed an esoteric teaching that was transmitted independently of written texts. This teaching he transmitted personally to one of his disciples, who in turn transmitted it to his own disciple. In this way, it was handed down until it reached Bodhidharma, who is supposed to have been the twenty—eighth Patriarch in India, and who came to China some time between S±O and 526, where he became the first Tsu (Patriarch, literally, Ancestor) of the Ch'an school in China.

Traditional Account of the Origin of Ch anism

There Bodhidharma transmitted the esoteric teaching to Hui-k' o (486-593), who was China's second Patriarch. The teaching was thus perpetuated until a major split in the school occurred, caused by the two chief disciples of the fifth Patriarch, Hung-jen (605-675). One of them, Shen-hsiu (died 706), became the founder of the Northern school; the other, Hui -neng (638-713), founded the Southern school. The Southern school soon surpassed the Northern one in popularity, so that Hui-neng came to be recognized as the sixth Patriarch, the true successor of Hung—jen. All the later influential groups in Ch'

anism took their rise from the disciples of Hui-neng.*

How far we can depend on the earlier part of this traditional account is much questioned, for it is not supported by any documents dated earlier than the eleventh century. It is not our purpose in this chapter to make a scholarly examination of this problem. Suffice it to say that no scholar today takes

* For the traditional account, see Yang Yi (974-102.0), Ch'uan Teng Lu or Record of the Transmission of the Light, ch Han I.

418 CH'ANISM: THE PHILOSOPHY OF SILENCE

the tradition very seriously. Indeed, as we have already seen in the last chapter, the theoretical background for Ch'anism had already been created in China by such men as Seng—chao and Tao—sheng. Given this background, the rise of Ch anism would seem to have been almost inevitable, without looking to the almost legendary Bodhidharma as its founder.

The split in the Ch an school caused by Shen —hsiu and Hui —neng is, however, a historical fact.

The difference between these founders of the Northern and Southern schools represents the earlier difference between the Hsing tsung (Universal Mind school) and K ' ung tsung (Empty school) that was described in the last chapter. This can be seen in Hui—neng s own autobiography. From this work we learn that Hui -neng was a native of the present Kwangtung province and became a student of Buddhism under Hung—jen. The account continues that one day Hung—jen, realizing that his time was nearly over, summoned his disciples together and told them that a successor must now be appointed; this successor would be the disciple who could write the best poem summarizing the teaching of Ch anism.

Shen—hsiu then wrote a poem which read:

The body is like unto the Bodhi-tree, And the mind to a mirror bright; Carefully we cleanse them hour by hour Lest dust should fall upon them.

To refute this idea, Hui—neng then wrote the following poem:

Originally there was no Bodhi-tree, Nor was there any mirror; Since originally there was nothing, Whereon can the dust fall?

It is said that Hung—jen approved Hui—neng s poem and appointed him as his successor, the sixth Patriarch.*

Shen-hsiu's poem emphasized the Universal Mind or Buddha Nature spoken of by Tao-sheng, while Hui-neng s emphasized the Wu (Non-being) of Seng-chao. There are two phrases that often occur in Ch anism. One is, "The very mind is Buddha"; the other, "not-mind,and not-Buddha. ' Shen-hsiu's poem is the expression of the first phrase, and Hui-neng 's of the second.

* See the Liu-tsu T' anching or Sulra Spoken by the Sixth Patriarch, chtitml.

4 2 0 CH' ANISM: THE PHILOSOPHY OF SILENCE

The First Principle Is Inexpressible

In later times the Ch'an school in its major development followed the line set by Hui —neng. In it the combination already begun between the Empty school and Taoism reached its climax. What the Empty school called higher sense truth on the third level, the Ch'anists called the First Principle. As we have seen in the last chapter, on this third level one simply cannot say anything. Hence the First Principle is by its very nature inexpressible. The Ch' an Master Wen-yi (died 958) was once asked: "What is the First Principle?" To which he answered: If I were to tell you, it would become the second principle. {Wen-yi Ch'an-shih Yii-lu or Sayings of the Ch an Master Wen-yi. ) It was the principle of the Ch an Masters to teach their disciples only through personal contact. For the benefit of those who did not have opportunity for such contact, however, written records were made of the sayings of the Masters, which were known as yii lu (recorded conversations). This was a practice that was later taken over by the Neo -Confucianists. In these records, we often find that when a student ventured to ask some question about the fundamental principles of Buddhism, he would often he given a beating by his Ch'an Master, or some quite irrelevant answer. He might, for example, be told that the price of a certain vegetable was then three cents. These answers seem very paradoxical to those who are not familiar with the purpose of Ch anism. But this purpose is simply to let the student know that what he asks about is not answerable. Once he understands that, he understands a great deal.

The First Principle is inexpressible, because what is called the Wu is not something about which anything can be said. By calling it "Mind ' or any other name, one is at once giving it a definition and thus imposing on it a limitation. As the Ch anists and Taoists both say, one thereby falls into the "net of words." Ma—tsu or the Patriarch Ma (died 7^8), a disciple of ihe disciple of Hui-neng, was once asked: "Why do you say that the very mind is Buddha?" Ma-tsu answered: "I simply want to stop the crying of children.""

Suppose they do stop crying?" asked the questioner. Then not-mind, not-Buddha," was the answer.*

Another student asked Ma-tsu: "What kind of man is he who is not linked to all things?" The Master answered: "Wait until in one gulp you can drink up all the water in the West River, then I willtell you. (Ibid.) Such an acl is obviously impossible and by suggesting it Ma-tsu meant to indicate to the student that he would not answer his question. His question, in fact, was really not answerable,because he who is not linked to all things is one who transcends all things. This being so, how can you ask what kind of man he is?

Yi-tsang (of the Sung dynasty), Ku-tsuii-hsii Yu-lu or Recorded Sayings of Ancient Worthies, chiion 1.