Allende’s Chile and the Inter-American Cold War (53 page)

47.
“Report on a Discussion between Comrade Markowski (Head of the Latin America Sector, Foreign Relations Department, Central Committee, Socialist Unity Party of Germany) and Comrade Montes (member of the political commission of the PCCh),” 15 July 1970, DY/30/IV A2/20/712/SAPMO.

48.
Fidel Castro, “Salvador Allende: His Example Lives On.”

49.
Martínez Pírez interview, 15 December 2004. Pírez recalls first meeting Ulises Estrada in Chile prior to 1964 when he was serving as a political counselor at the Cuban Embassy in Chile.

50.
Chain interview, 8 December 2004.

51.
Ibid., and Vierra interview, 28 April 2006.

52.
Piñeiro recalls that Argentina, Bolivia, and Peru were the key countries considered. Suárez,
Manuel Piñeiro
, 12, and Oña interview, 2 May 2006.

53.
Carlos Rafael Rodríguez as quoted in “Summary of Press Conference,” 24 November 1970, FCO7/1991/TNA.

54.
Marambio,
Armas de Ayer
, 46.

55.
Ibid., 57; Intelligence Note, INR, “Times Article Exaggerates Appeal of Revolutionary Group,” 14 January 1970, box 2196/RG59/NARA; and Haslam,
Assisted Suicide
, 53.

56.
Marambio,
Armas de Ayer
, 61–65.

57.
Rojas Pizarro interview.

58.
Haslam,
Assisted Suicide
, 27–29.

59.
Marambio,
Armas de Ayer
, 69.

60.
Pascal Allende interview, 6 April 2010. Pascal Allende believes that this money
came from a variety of sources, including Allende’s own funds and businesses, his campaign funds, and “help” that he received from the Cubans.

61.
On the MIR’s decision, see Quiroga,
Compañeros
, 50. Cubans dismiss the importance of their role in making this decision for the MIR. See Oña interview, 9 December 2004, and Estrada interview.

62.
Allende, Speech at Chile’s National Stadium, 5 November 1970, published as “Inaugural Address in the National Stadium,” in Cockcroft,
Allende Reader
, 53.

63.
Muñoz, “The International Policy of the Socialist Party,” 152.

64.
See Colburn,
Vogue of Revolution
, and Frank,
Latin America: Underdevelopment or Revolution
.

65.
Allende, Speech to Chilean Senate, 4 July 1956, published as “El Socialismo Chileno,”
OE-SA
, 186.

66.
Allende cited the United Kingdom, France, and Germany as alternative markets for Chile, being capable of receiving 400,000 tons of copper. Allende, July 1964, published as “Cómo vamos a nacionalizar el cobre,”
OE-SA
, 234.

67.
Colburn,
Vogue of Revolution
, 5–6, 8–9. By Colburn’s definition of revolutionary transformation, he does not include Chile in his list of Third World states that underwent successful revolutions, but his analysis of the intellectual
mentalité
that revolutionary elites around the world adopted is particularly useful for understanding the ideas that Chilean revolutionaries drew from.

68.
Malley,
Call from Algeria
, 173–74, and Fermandois,
Mundo y Fin de Mundo
, 354.

69.
Allende, “Victory Speech,” in Cockcroft,
Allende Reader
, 51. See also Veneros,
Ensayo Psicobiográfico
, 298; Allende, interview with Augusto Olivares, November 1971, published as “Interview with Salvador Allende and Fidel Castro,” in Cockcroft,
Allende Reader
, 134.

70.
Almeyda, Speech to OAS General Assembly, San José, Costa Rica, 15 April 1971, in Vera Castillo,
Política Exterior Chilena
, 432.

71.
Juan Osses and Ernesto Guitierrez as quoted in Quiroga,
Compañeros
, 17–18, 61, and Jaramillo Edwards, “Testimonios: Vuelo de Noche,” 88. See also Fermandois,
Mundo y Fin de Mundo
, 383.

72.
Alejandro Cid as quoted in Quiroga,
Compañeros
, 63.

73.
Debray, “Allende Habla con Debray,” 33, 35; Almeyda,
Reencuentro con mi Vida
, 165; Jorquera,
El Chicho Allende
, 266, 261; Veneros,
Allende
, 252; and Otero,
Razón y Fuerza de Chile
, 69.

74.
Allende,
Conferencia Ofrecida por el Dr. Salvador Allende
.

75.
Allende, Speech at Plaza Bulnes, Santiago, 1 May 1971, published as “Address to International Workers Day Rally,” in Cockcroft,
Allende Reader
, 81.

76.
For a detailed examination of Chile’s copper industry and successive efforts to gain control of it, see Sigmund,
Multinationals
, 131–78.

77.
Collier and Sater,
History of Chile
, 318.

78.
Popular Unity Programme, in Cockcroft,
Allende Reader
, 259–61; Allende,
Conferencia Ofrecida por el Dr. Salvador Allende
; and Collier and Sater,
History of Chile
, 334.

79.
Allende, Speech, 25 October 1938, published as “Homenaje al Frente Popular,”
OE-SA
, 66–67. On his early reference to the pursuit of a “second independence,”
see Allende, Speech at Chamber of Deputies, 7 June 1939, published as “La géstion del Gobierno del Frente Popular,”
OE-SA
, 61–62.

80.
Allende, 1944, as quoted by Joan Garcés in
OE-SA
, 22.

81.
Allende, Speech to the Chilean Senate, 4 July 1956, published as “Homenaje al Gobierno de Arbenz en Guatemala,”
OE-SA
, 181–82.

82.
Allende,
El Siglo
, 15 March 1954, and
Pravda
, 13 August 1954, as quoted in Hove, “The Arbenz Factor,” 634, 643, 659–60.

83.
Allende, Speech at the University of Montevideo, 1967, published as “Critica a la Alianza para el Progreso,”
OE-SA
, 265.

84.
Allende as quoted in Debray, “Allende habla con Debray,” 32.

85.
Allende,
Conferencia Ofrecida por el Dr. Salvador Allende
; Jorquera,
El Chicho Allende
, 269; Estrada interview; and Marambio,
Armas de Ayer
, 70–71. Details of Allende’s support for armed struggle in Latin America are almost nonexistent, although Estrada stated that he helped (particularly in Venezuela) with both money and moral support. See also Haslam,
Assisted Suicide
, 34; Pascal Allende interview and Huerta interviews, 23 March and 20 April 2010.

86.
Allende, Speech to Chilean Senate, no date, as quoted in Veneros,
Allende
, 251.

87.
O Globo
, 10 November 1970, as quoted in Oficio, Embachile Rio to Señor Ministro, 13 November 1970, Oficios Conf., E./R./Brasil/1970/AMRE.

88.
Allende as quoted in Labarca,
Biografía Sentimental
, 172.

89.
Oña interviews, 9 December 2004 and 3 September 2005.

90.
Oña interview, 3 September 2005; Pascal Allende interview; and conversations with Oña, March–April 2010. Allende appears to have known about the broad outlines of the Chilean ELN’s activities and supported it, but he never knew details or became involved directly.

91.
Oña interview, 9 December 2004. See also Suárez,
Manuel Piñeiro
, 26, and Quiroga,
Compañeros
, 26–27.

92.
Covert Action in Chile
, 15, 20, 22.

93.
Oña interview, 3 September 2005.

94.
On Cuba’s refusal to give the PDC “electioneering material,” see Record of Conversation with Olga Chamorro, 17 September 1970, Briefing, East German Embassy, Havana, to Berlin, “Information on Questions of Cuba’s Position on the Election Results in Chile,” 25 September 1970, DY/30/IV A2/20/286/SAPMO. On Cuba’s commercial relations with Chile during the last year of Frei’s presidency, see Gleijeses,
Conflicting Missions
, 221.

95.
Oña interview, 9 December 2004.

96.
Allende, interview with Peter Gzowski, 4 September 1970, published as “Election Day Interview with Canada’s CBC Radio,” in Cockcroft,
Allende Reader
, 44.

97.
Memorandum of Conversation, Rogers, Kubisch, and Allende, 25 May 1973, Chilean Embassy, Buenos Aires, Telegram, SecState to Amembassy Santiago, 29 May 1973, box 953/NSCF/NPMP.

98.
Vaky interview, 27 April 2005. On senior government priorities and a lack of attention to Latin America, and Chile in particular, see also Memorandum, “Why did the U.S. Government Not Take More Vigorous Political Action Measures to Prevent the Election of the Marxist candidate, Salvador Allende, as President of Chile?”
4 March 1971, The Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, “December 9, 2010 Materials Release.” Specifically, this postmortem memorandum notes that in 1970 “much of the time and attention of policy-making level officials was taken up by the situation in Southeast Asia (the Cambodia operation) and the Middle East—40 Committee meetings on Chile were cancelled or postponed.”

99.
Kissinger,
White House Years
, 666, and Kubisch interview, FD.

100.
The original source of this oft-quoted remark is Hersh,
Price of Power
, 263. Its accuracy was nevertheless confirmed to the author by Ramon Huidobro, who was present at the meeting with Valdés and who personally heard it. See Huidobro interview, 28 October 2004.

101.
Rabe,
Eisenhower and Latin America
, 100.

102.
Nixon,
Six Crises
, 213–14.

103.
Rabe,
Eisenhower and Latin America
, 107–12.

104.
Nixon’s handwritten notes (1967) as quoted in Michael, “Nixon, Chile and Shadows of the Cold War,” 95–104. Emphasis in original.

105.
Ibid., 102–4.

106.
Nixon,
Six Crises
, 191, 208–9; Nixon,
Memoirs
, 490; Nixon as quoted in Rabe,
Eisenhower and Latin America
, 104; and Nixon, as quoted in Schoultz,
Beneath the United States
, 352.

107.
Louis Halle as quoted in McPherson,
Intimate Ties
, 21.

108.
George Kennan to Dean Acheson, 29 March 1950, published as “A Realist Views Latin America,” in Holden and Zolov,
Latin America and the United States
, 196–97.

109.
Thomas Jefferson, 1813, as quoted in Westad,
Global Cold War
, 10–11. On U.S. views of Latin Americans as being inferior, see also Schoultz,
Beneath the United States
.

110.
Nelson Rockefeller, “The Official Report of a United States Presidential Mission for the Western Hemisphere,” 30 August 1969, in Holden and Zolov,
Latin America and the United States
, 265.

111.
White House Tape, Nixon to Daniel P. Moynihan, 7 October 1971, Conversation: 116–10/WHT/NPMP.

112.
Telcon, Kissinger and Dean Rusk, 3 October 1973, box 22/HAK Telcons/NSC/NPMP.

113.
Consensus of Viña del Mar as quoted in Fermandois,
Mundo y Fin de Mundo
, 322–24.

114.
Guerra Vilaboy,
Breve Historia de América Latina
, 273.

115.
Uribe,
Black Book of Intervention
, 30, and Huidobro interview, 28 October 2004.

116.
NSSM 15 as quoted in Agenda Annex, “The Setting for Policy Choice,” box H040/NSCIF/NPMP.

117.
Agenda Annex, “The Setting for Policy Choice.”

118.
Rockefeller, “The Official Report,” 265.

119.
Kissinger, “Central Issues of American Foreign Policy” (1968), in Kissinger,
American Foreign Policy
, 80.

120.
Memorandum, Crimmins to Meyer, “Comments on Rockefeller Report Recommendation,” 3 October 1969, Bureau of Inter-American Affairs, Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary, 1969–ca. 1975, RG59/NARA.

121.
Richard Nixon, Speech to the Inter-American Press Association, 31 October 1969, published as “Action for Progress for the Americas,” in Gray,
Latin America and the United States
, 264; and Crimmins interview, 3 May 2005.

122.
Meyer, Speech to Subcommittee on Inter-American Affairs of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, 8 May 1969, published as “Future U.S Relations with Latin America,” in Gray,
Latin America and the United States
, 261.

123.
Records of the Staff Secretary, NSDM Working Files, National Decision Memorandum 28, 20 October 1969, and Memorandum, Kissinger for Chairman, NSC Under Secretaries Committee, 20 October 1969, box H285/NSCIF/NPMP. See also Brands, “Richard Nixon and Economic Nationalism,” 219. Sanctions against Bolivia and Peru were not as extensive as those subsequently launched against Chile, and little is known about them. On what is known about Bolivia, see Lehman,
Limited Partnership
, 160.

124.
See Memorandum, William Merriam (Vice-President, ITT, Washington) to John McCone, 9 October 1970, and Memorandum, H. Hendrix (ITT) to E. J. Gerrity (ITT), 30 October 1970, in
Subversion in Chile
, 52, 90–91.

125.
Kissinger, “Central Issues,” 52.

126.
Huerta interview, 23 March 2010.

127.
Memorandum, “Why did the U.S. Government Not Take More Vigorous Political Action Measures to Prevent the Election of the Marxist candidate, Salvador Allende, as President of Chile?” 4 March 1971, The Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, “December 9, 2010 Materials Release.”

128.
Ibid., and
Covert Action in Chile
, 1, 9, 13, 22.

1.
Granma
, 5 September 1970; Debray, “Allende habla con Debray,” 33; Suárez interview, 12 September 2005; Oña interview 3 September 2005; and conversations with Oña, March–April 2010. See also Fidel Castro to Beatriz Allende as quoted in Record of Conversation, Ambassador Alexseev and Volodia Teitelboim, 14 October 1970, published as “Conversación del Embajador Alexseev con Volodia Teitelboim,” in Ulianova and Fediakova, “Chile en los Archivos de la URSS (1959–1973),” 412.