Ancient Iraq (56 page)

Chapter 9

1
. Condensed information on the Semites in general can be found in:
S. MOSCATI
,
The Semites in Ancient History
, Cardiff, 1959.

2
. For criticism of the ‘Arabian theory’, cf.
J. M. GRINZ
, ‘On the original home of the Semites’,
JNES
, XXI (1962), pp. 186 – 203. But we cannot agree with the author's views that northern Mesopotamia and southern Armenia were the cradle of the Semites.

3
. On nomads in the ancient East, see:
J. R. KUPPER
,
Les Nomades en Mésopotamie au Temps des Rois de Mari
, Paris, 1957, and the penetrating studies of
M. B. ROWTON
in
Orientalia
, XLII (1973), pp. 247 – 58;
JNES
, XXXII (1973), pp. 201 – 15;
JESHO
, XVII (1974), pp. 1 – 30.

4
.
S. N. KRAMER
,
Genava
, VIII (1960), p. 277.

5
.
A. GUILLAUME
,
Prophecy and Divination among the Hebrews and other Semites
, London, 1939.

6
.
R. D. BIGGS
, ‘Semitic names in the Fara period’,
Orientalia
, XXXVI (1967), pp. 55 – 66.

7
. On this subject, see the articles by
D. O. EDZARD
and
L. J. GELB
in
Aspects du Contact Suméro-Akkadien
, Geneva, 1960, and
F. R. KRAUS
,
Sumerer und Akkader
, Amsterdam/London, 1970.

8
.
ANET
, p. 119;
B. LEWIS
,
The Sargon Legend
, Cambridge, Mass., 1980;
J. S. COOPER
and
W. HEIMPEL
, ‘The Sumerian Sargon Legend’,
JAOS
CIII (1983), pp. 67 – 92.

9
. We are referring to Sargon's inscriptions, many of which are second-millennium copies. See:
IRSA
, pp. 97 – 9;
ANET
, pp. 260-68 and
H. E. HIRSCH
, ‘Die Inschriften der Könige von Agade’,
AfO
, XX (1963), pp. 1 – 82.

10
. The various sites suggested are listed in
RGTC
, I, p. 9 and II, p. 6. The hypothesis that Agade was the present Mizyiad, 6 kilometres north-west of Kish (
H. WEISS
,
JAOS
, XVC (1975), pp. 442 – 51) has been disproved by Iraqi excavations of that mound.

11
. ‘Hymnal prayer of Enheduanna: the adoration of Inanna in Ur’,
ANET
, pp. 579 – 82 (transl.
S. N. KRAMER
).

12
. Unidentified city (
RGTC
, I, p. 76), probably in northern Syria and perhaps Irim of the Ebla texts.

13
. On the bronze head, see
M. E. L. MALLOWAN
in
Iraq
, III (1936), p. 104 ff. On the texts, see
1. J. GELB
,
Old Akkadian Writing and Grammar
, Chicago, 1961, pp. 194 – 5.

14
.
W. ALBRIGHT
, The epic of the King of the Battle’,
JSOR
, VII (1923), pp. 1 ff.;
E. F. WEIDNER
, ‘Der Zug Sargons von Akkad nach Kleinasien’,
Bo.Stu.
, VI (1922).

15
.
J. NOUGAYROL
, ‘Un chef d'oeuvre inédit de la littérature babylonienne',
RA
, XLV (1951), pp. 169 ff. On a late text purporting to describe the geography of Sargon's empire, see:
A. K. GRAYSON
, ‘The Empire of Sargon of Akkad’,
AfO
, XXV (1974 – 7), pp. 56 – 64.

16
.
KING
,
Chronicles
, I, pp. 27 – 156;
ABC
, pp. 152 – 4;
ANET
, p. 266.

17
.
A. GOETZE
, ‘Historical allusions in Old Babylonian omen texts’,
JCS
, I (1947), p. 256, No. 13. For a discussion of the weapons involved (stone tablets, heavy seals, other cylindrical objects?),
cf. D. J. WISEMAN
, ‘Murder in Mesopotamia’,
Iraq
, XXXVI (1974), p. 254.

18
.
IRSA
, p. 104.

19
.
P. MATTHIAE
,
Ebla, in Impero Ritrovato
, Torino, 1977, pp. 47, 182. It seems that the Early Dynastic palace of Mari was destroyed on the way.

20
. This huge tell was first excavated in 1937 – 8, then from 1976 onwards. For an overall view of the results, see:
M. E. L. MALLOWAN
in
Twenty-five Years of Mesopotamian Discovery
, London, 1956, pp. 24 – 38, and
D. OATES
in
J. CURTIS
(ed.),
Fifty Years of Mesopotamian Discovery
, London, 1982, pp. 62 – 71. Recent reports in
Iraq
. To the vast ‘Narâm-Sin Palace’ (in fact a fortified administrative building) must now be added several houses and a temple.

21
. Rock sculpture of Darband-i-Gawr in
S. SMITH
,
History of Early Assyria
, London, 1928, p. 97. Stele of Narâm-Sin:
J. DE MORGAN
,
MDP
(1900), pp. 144 ff.;
v. SCHEIL
,
MDP
, II (1900), pp. 53 ff.;
A. PARROT
,
Sumer
, pls. 212 – 13.

22
. So called because it was written on an apocryphal stele allegedly deposited in Kutha (Tell Ibrahim). Cf.
O. GURNEY
,
Anatolian Studies
, V (1955), pp. 93 – 113. In another inscription, Narâm-Sin admits defeat; his numerous troops were crushed and he could only defend Agade; but the text is incomplete. Cf.
A. K. GRAYSON
and
E. SOLLBERGER
, ‘L’insurrection générale contre Narâm-Suen’,
RA
, LXX (1976), pp. 103 – 28.

23
.
MDP
, IV, pl. XI;
ISA
, pp. 246 ff;
RISA
, p. 151.

24
.
J. S. COOPER
,
The Curse of Agade
, Baltimore/London, 1983.

25
.
S. PIGGOTT
,
Prehistoric India
, Harmondsworth, 1950;
SIR MORTIMER WHEELER
,
The Indus Civilization
, Cambridge, 1962;
Civilizations of the Indus Valley and beyond
, London, 1966;
G. L. POSSEHL
(ed.)
Harappan Civilization
, Warminster, 1982. Commercial relations with the Indus valley were already established during the Early Dynastic period (
UE
, II, pp. 397 ff.).

26
. A five-foot-high pyramidal block of diorite covered with an Akkadian inscription in sixty-nine columns and known as the ‘obelisk of Manishtusu’ refers to the purchase by the king of a large estate in central Mesopotamia. Translation by
V. SCHEIL
,
MDP
, II (1900), pp. 1 – 52. See also:
H. HIRSCH
,
AfO
, XX (1963), p. 14.

Chapter 10

1
. On the Guti, see: c.
J. GADD, CAH
, I, 2, pp. 457 – 63 and
W. W. HALLO
, article ‘Gutium’ in
RLA
, 3 (1971), pp. 708 – 20.

2
.
R. KUTSCHER
,
The Brockmon Tablets at the University of Haifa. Royal Inscriptions
, Haifa, 1989, pp. 49 – 70.

3
.
IRSA
, p. 132;
W. H. P. RÖMER
, ‘Zur Siegensinschrift des Königs Utu-hegal von Unug (
c
. 216 – 2110 v.Chr.),
Orientalia
, LIV (1985), pp. 274 – 88.

4
.
S. N. KRAMER
, ‘The Ur-Nammu law-code: who was its author?’,
Orientalia
, LII (1983), pp. 453 – 56.

5
. The main studies concerning ziqqurats are:
H. J. LENZEN
,
Die Entwicklung der Zikkurat
, Leipzig, 1941;
TH. BUSINK
,
De Babylonische Tempeltoren
, Leiden, 1949;
A. PARROT
,
Ziggurats et Tour de Babel
, Paris, 1949;
W. ROLLIG
, ‘Der Turm zu Babel’ in
A. ROSENBERG
(ed.),
Der babylonische Turm. Aufbruch ins Masslose
, München, 1975.

6
.
S. N. KRAMER
and
A. FALKENSTEIN
, ‘Ur-Nammu law code‘,
Orientalia
, 23 (1954), pp. 40 – 51.
E. SZLECHTER
, ‘Le code d'Ur-Nammu’,
RA
, XLIX (1955), pp. 169 – 77.
J. J. FINKELSTEIN
, ‘The laws of Ur-Nammu’,
JCS
, XXII (1968 – 9), pp. 66 – 82.

7
.
C. L. WOOLLEY
,
The Ziggurat and its Surroundings
(
UE
, V), London, 1939;
SIR LEONARD WOOLLEY
and
R. P. S. MOOREY
,
Ur of the Chaldees
London, 1982, pp. 138 – 47.

8
.
A. FALKENSTEIN
,
Die Inschriften Gudeas von Lagash
, 1, Rome, 1966. Bibliography in
W. RÖMER
, ‘Zurn heutigen’ Stande der Gudeaforschung’,
Bi.Or
., XXVI (1969 pp. 159 – 71. The quotations given here are from: Cylinder A, translation
M. LAMBERT
and
R. TOURNAY
,
RB
, 55 (1948), pp. 403 – 23 (cf.
A. L. OPPENHEIM
in
ANET
, p. 268); Statue E, translation
M. LAMBERT
,
RA
, XLVI (1952), p. 81.

9
.
A. PARROT
,
Tello
, Paris, 1948, pp. 147 – 207;
Sumer
, pp. 220 – 32. Some doubt has been expressed as to the authenticity of some of these statues:
F. JOHANSEN
;
Statues of Gudea Ancient and Modern
, Copenhagen, 1978.

10
.
S. N. KRAMER
, ‘The death of Ur-Nammu and his descent to the Netherworld’,
JCS
, XXI (1967), pp. 104 – 22.

11
.
W. W. HALLO
, ‘Simurrum and the Hurrian frontier’,
RHA
, XXXVI (1978), pp. 71 – 82.
Shashrum
is Shimshara;
Urbilum
is modern Erbil;
Harshi
might be at or near modern Turz Kurmatli;
Simurrum
has not been identified but could be between Arbil and Kirkuk.

12
.
A. FALKENSTEIN
and
W. VON SODEN
,
Sumerische und Akkadische Hymnen und Gebete
, Stuttgart, 1953, pp. 114 – 19;
J. KLEIN
,
The Royal Hymns of Shulgi, King of Ur
, Philadelphia, 1981.

13
.
SIR LEONARD WOOLLEY
and
R. P. S. MOOREY
,
Ur of the Chaldees
, pp. 163 – 74.

14
. Ur-Nammu had married one of his sons with the daughter of Apil-kin, king of Mari (
M. CIVIL
,
RA
, LVI (1962), p. 213.

15
.
T. B. JONES
and
J. W. SNYDER
,
Sumerian Economic Texts from the Third Ur Dynasty
, Minneapolis, 1961, pp. 280 – 310;
J. P. GREGOIRE
,
Archives Administratives Sumériennes
, Paris, 1970, pp. 61 – 2 and 201 – 2.

16
. On this institution, cf.
W. HALLO
, ‘A Sumerian amphictyony’,
JCS
, XIV (1960), pp. 88 – 114.

17
.
P. MICHALOWSKI
, ‘Foreign tribute to Sumer during the Ur III period‘,
ZA
, LXVIII (1978), pp. 34 – 49.

18
. These texts have been and are still being published in a wide variety of periodicals. So far, there is no global study on the subject, but much information can be drawn from the books cited in note 15 above.

19
.
E. SOLLBERGER
; ‘L'opposition au pays de Sumer et d'Akkad’ in
A. FINET
(ed.),
La Voix de l'Opposition en Mésopotamie
, Bruxelles, 1973, pp. 29 – 30.

20
.
H. LIMET
,
Le Travail du Métal au Pays de Sumer au Temps de la Troisième Dynastie d'Ur
, Paris, 1960.

21
.
H. WAETZOLDT
,
Untersuchungen zur neusumerischen Textilindustrie
, Roma, 1972.

22
. On this controversial subject, see:
M. A. POWELL
, ‘Sumerian merchants and the problem of profits’,
Iraq
, XXXIX (1977), pp. 23 – 9;
D. C. SNELL
, ‘The activities of some merchants of Umma,
ibid.
, pp. 45 – 50;
H. LIMET
, ‘Les schémas du commerce néosumér-ien’,
ibid.
, pp. 51 – 8.

23
.
I. J. GELB
, ‘Prisoners of war in early Mesopotamia’,
JNES
, XXII (1973), pp. 70 – 98.

24
.
I. J. GELB
, ‘The ancient Mesopotamian ration system’,
JNES
, XXIV (1965), pp. 230 – 41.

25
.
M. CIVIL
, ‘Shu-Sin's historical inscriptions: collection B’,
JCS
, XXI (1967), pp. 24 – 38;
W. W. HALLO
, in
RAH
, XXXVI (1978), p. 79.

26
.
A. UNGNAD
, article ‘Datenlisten’ in
RLA
, II, p. 144;
IRSA
, p. 52. This in fact was a wall, 275 kilometres long, which linked the Euphrates to the Tigris somewhere north of modern Baghdad.

27
. On the Amorites generally, see:
K. M. KENYON
;
Amorites and Canaanites
, London, 1963;
G. BUCCELLATI
,
The Amorites of the Ur III period
, Napoli, 1963;
A. HALDAR
,
Who were the Amorites
?, Leiden, 1971;
M. LIVERANI
, ‘The Amorites’ in
D. J. WISEMAN
(ed.),
Peoples of Old Testament Times
, Oxford, 1972, pp. 101 – 33.

28
.
E. CHIERA
,
Sumerian Epics and Myths
, Chicago 1934, Nos 58 and 112.

29
.
E. CHIERA
,
Sumerian Texts of Varied Contents
, Chicago, 1934, No. 3.

30
. On the reign of Ibbi-Sin and the fall of Ur, see:
T. JACOBSEN
, ‘The reign of Ibbi-Suen’,
JCS
, VII (1953), pp. 36 – 44;
E. SOLLBERGER
, article ‘Ibbi-Sin’ in
RLA
, V, pp. 1 – 8;
J. VAN DIJKE
, ‘Ishbi-Erra, Kindattu, l'homme d'Elam et la chute de la ville d'Ur’,
JCS
, XXX (1978), pp. 189 – 207.

31
.
S. N. KRAMER
, ‘Lamentation over the destruction of Ur’
ANET
, pp. 455 – 63. There is also a lamentation over the destruction of Sumer and Ur (
ibid
., pp. 611–19) and fragmentary lamentations over the destruction of Nippur, Uruk and Eridu; cf.
S. N. KRAMER
, ‘The weeping goddess: Sumerian prototype of the Mater Dolorosa’,
Biblical Archaeologist
, 1983, pp. 69 – 80.