Are We Smart Enough to Know How Smart Animals Are? (48 page)

human-raised, 152

and imitation, 151–56, 161

intelligence in, 68

intentionality in, 68

interspecies interaction of, 141–42

kissing, 24–25,
24
, 26

and mirrors, 49–50

new games invented by, 154–55

new patterns from preexisting knowledge, 68

planning by, 216

responses to death, 106

and self-control, 228

social abilities of, 141, 142

and theory of mind, 146

as thinking beings, 87

tickling, 25

tools fabricated by, 76–87,
77

tool use by, 76, 81, 126–27

Wernicke’s area of the brain in, 109

aphasia, 112

archerfish, 12

Archimedes, 64–65

arctoidea
family, 32

Are You as Stupid as a Chimpanzee?
(BBC), 127

Aristotle, 249

scala naturae,
12, 13, 22

armadillos, 75

arthropods, 252

Asimov, Isaac, 2

attention, 34, 150

auditory cortex, 11

Ayumu (chimpanzee), 119–20,
120
, 121, 127–28, 129, 134, 152, 161

Babb, Stephanie, 211

baboons, social relationships in, 169, 177

Baerends, Gerard, 39, 56

Bailey (dolphin), 263

bats:

auditory cortex of, 11

echolocation of, 10, 75

Umwelt
of, 9–11

wings of,
74

Beach, Frank, 57

Beck, Benjamin, 14–15, 78, 265

beewolves (digger wasps), 38, 62, 69

behavioral diversity, 51

behavioral evolution, 45

behaviorism, 30–31, 32, 33, 56–58, 238, 271, 319

decline of, 55

and ethology, 36–37, 41, 44

expectation in, 207

operant conditioning, 31, 36, 37, 99

and purposiveness, 207

rewards in, 207, 256, 257

and Skinner, 49,
50
, 266

stimulus-response, 42, 154

behaviorists, as psychologists, 39

behaviors:

analogous, 75

inhibitions in, 222–23

innate, 40, 56

naturalistic, 174

purposeful, 213–15,
214

species-typical, 39–40, 60

spontaneous, 37–38

structure of, 39, 175

survival value of, 44

Bekoff, Marc, 266

Beran, Michael, 227–29

Betty (crow), 89–90

Bierens de Haan, Johan, 43–44

Bimba (chimpanzee), 186

BIOL (Bonding- and Identification-based Observational Learning), 155, 259, 319

Biologically prepared learning,
see
learning, biologically prepared

biology:

function vs. mechanism in, 73–74

utilitarian view of, 267

bipedalism, 120–21

birds:

brain studies of, 115, 267

food caching by, 98, 217–18, 225

intelligence of, 98–99

memory of, 211

and mirror image, 242, 244

referential signaling by, 108

self-restraint in, 225

theory of mind in, 146–48,
147

toolmaking by, 90

wings of, 75

birdsong:

duplicating behavior, 151

FoxP2 gene in, 109

body language, 131–32

body movements, imitation of, 159

Boesch, Christopher, 191, 192

bonobos:

bipedalism in, 120–21

future planning by, 216

in Hominoid family, 80–81, 120

and language, 110–11

and missing link, 161

problem solving by, 84

purposeful behavior in, 213–15,
214

sexuality of, 218

tool use by, 176

Borie (chimpanzee), 50, 194

Bovet, Dalila, 183

Boysen, Sarah, 228–29

brachiators, 14

brain:

and consciousness, 123–24

and future planning, 220–21

interconnectivity in, 123

and mental powers, 160

mirror neurons in, 159

neuron count in, 124, 160

primate expansion of, 176

sizes of, 123–24, 248, 267

brain studies, 114–15,
116
, 117, 121, 267

Breuer, Thomas, 81

Brosnan, Sarah, 197, 227

Browning, Robert, 205

Bruck, Jason, 263

Bshary, Redouan, 198–200

Budongo Forest, Uganda, 180

Bugnyar, Thomas, 147–48

Bula (chimpanzee), 186

Burgers’ Zoo, Arnhem:

chimpanzee studies in, 53, 134, 167, 170–71, 175,
188

Great Escape from, 67

Burghardt, Gordon, 26

Bushmen, 79–80

Call, Josep, 54, 216

Callie (dog), 115–17,
116

Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness, The,
233–34

camouflage, 250–51

capuchin monkeys:

coalitions formed by, 178–79,
179

conformism in, 253–54

cooperation among, 186, 197

delayed gratification in, 224–25

face recognition in, 70–71, 129

headflagging by, 179–80

lab for, 59

and mirror image, 243

perspective taking by, 135, 138

reciprocity among, 175

and theory of mind, 138

tool use by, 82–86,
85

trial-and-error learning by, 84

Carpenter, Ray, 61

Cartesian view of animals, 4

Cashew (cat), 212

cats:

inhibitions in, 222

Köpfchengeben
of, 21

and “law of effect,” 20–21,
20

punishment for behavior of, 56–57

cephalopods, 246, 252

cerebellum, 124, 160

Cheney, Dick, 72

Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, China, 32

chest beating, 127

Chester Zoo, UK, 219

Chimpanzee Politics
(de Waal), 168–69, 171, 175–76

chimpanzees:

affordances learned by, 68, 69

alliance formation by, 162, 171–72, 219

altruism of, 67–68

complex cognition of, 43

computer game competitions of, 161–62, 170

conflict resolution in, 184–85, 193, 195

conformism among, 252–57, 258, 259

conspecific approach in research with, 153–54

cooperation among, 187, 188–89,
188
, 191, 193–95, 197–98, 200

delayed gratification in, 225

and emotions, 106

empathy in, 133

face recognition in, 18–19, 70, 75, 260–61

floating peanut task, 91–92

food deprivation tested on, 36

generosity of, 256

ghost box test of, 159

grapefruit experiment with, 53–54, 62

grooming of, 155, 257

hand gestures of, 108–9

haptic (touch) discrimination of, 34

HIV-1 resistance in, 161

in Hominoid family, 80–81, 120

insight in, 64,
64
, 65

intentional signaling in, 137–38

kissing, 24–25,
24
, 171

in lab settings, 142–43, 146

logic sought by, 54–55

memory in, 119–20,
120
, 207–10

and mirror test, 48–50

and missing link, 161

perspective taking by, 136, 138–40, 148–49

political strategies of, 68, 172–73

problem solving by, 67–68, 84, 86, 87

reconciliation after fights, 174, 175

reputation of, 195

rivalries in, 162

self-awareness of, 48–50

and sexuality, 218, 221–22

social hierarchies, 168, 219, 221–22

social learning in, 155

social skills of, 165–74, 185, 218

status of, 162

stimulus equivalence in, 182–83

targeted helping by, 134

theory of mind in, 130–31, 146

toolkits of, 79, 87, 217

tool use by, 14, 63–64,
64
, 77–80,
77
, 81, 82, 84, 127, 257

traveling parties of, 172

trial-and-error learning by, 68

vocalizations by, 172, 180–81

in the wild vs. zoo-bred, 171, 173

Chimpita (chimpanzee), 111–12

“chimpocentrism,” 162

Chomsky, Noam, 99

cichlids, 39, 74

civilization, 151

Clark’s nutcrackers, 12, 69

Clay, Zanna, 214

Clayton, Nicky, 146–47, 211, 217

Clever Hans (horse), 45–48,
46
, 53, 60, 109, 141, 144

Clever Hans Effect, 47–48, 109, 111, 141, 319

coalition formation, 167, 171, 178–79,
179

cognition, 319

animal and human, 5, 121, 157, 268

attention and motivation required in, 150

and brain size, 123–24

comparative, 27

complex, 43

embodied, 159–60, 320

evolutionary,
see
evolutionary cognition

function vs. mechanism in, 73–74, 158

and language, 102

and learning, 69, 271

and perception, 238

of primates, 11–12

pure, 271

representational mental strategy, 86–87

research on, 13, 34, 45–48, 59, 163, 265, 269–70, 272–73

ripple effects of, 69–70, 75–76, 93, 94, 108, 136, 320

social, 156

unitary theory sought in, 158

use of term, 10–11, 69

cognitive ethology, 26–27, 266, 319

cognitive evolution, 12, 21–22, 252

cognitive maps, 206

cognitive ripple rule,
see
cognition, ripple effects of; ripple effects

Columbia Obstruction Method, 35

common ancestor, 161

communication:

geared to audience, 109–10

hand gestures, 108–9, 111

human skills in, 106

innate skills of, 108

interpretation of, 110

language,
see
language

nonverbal signals in, 106, 112, 131–32

unawareness of, 48

vocalizations, 172, 177, 178, 180–81, 262

comparability, 192

comparative psychology, 27, 28, 56, 58, 61, 271, 320

conditioning, 21

conflict resolution, 184–85, 193, 195

conformism, 252–59

conformist bias, 252, 253, 255, 259, 320

consciousness, 23, 123–24, 206, 228, 229, 233–34

conspecific approach, 152–54, 156, 159, 320

continuity, 124, 126, 221, 269, 274

convergent evolution, 74, 75, 83, 93, 109, 274, 319, 320

cooperation, 176, 186–201,
188

fishing cooperatives, 195–96

between ocean species, 198–200,
198

organization and scale, 196–97

cooperative pulling paradigm, 186–90, 192, 320

Copernicus, 268

cormorants, 226

corvids, 71–72, 92–93, 98, 136, 146–47,
147
, 156, 244

courting, 21

coyotes, 75

crab-eating (long-tailed) macaques, 88

Crawford, Meredith, 186, 192

critical anthropomorphism, 26, 320

crocodiles, 94

Crow and the Pitcher, The
(Aesop), 90–91,
90

crows:

complex cognition of, 43

face recognition in, 71–72

food caching by, 98

tool use by, 89–90,
90
, 91, 93, 270, 274

Crystal, Jonathon, 211

Cullen, Esther, 31

cultural learning, 152–53

cultural transmission, 156

cultural variability, 268

culture, 48, 51, 52, 151–52, 153, 175, 253, 268, 320

Curmudgeon (capuchin monkey), 180

cuttlefish, 251–52

Dandy (chimpanzee), 62

Darwin, Charles, 1, 124, 158

on animal emotions, 4, 41, 96, 114

on continuity, 221, 269

and natural selection, 122, 123

Darwin-Wallace Theory, 122–23

death, 106

delayed gratification, 224–29, 320

Dickinson, Anthony, 211

digger wasps, 38, 62, 69

Dijkgraaf, Sven, 10

Diogenes, 125

displacement activity, 37, 226–29, 320

DNA studies, 120, 121

dognition, 114

dogs:

behaviors of, 30–31, 152

brain studies on, 115–17,
116

domestication of, 114, 149–50, 156

eye contact with, 150

imitation in, 156

and mirror test, 242

punishment for behavior of, 56–57

restraint in, 222

wild, 191

and wolves compared, 149–50, 156

dolphins:

brain size of, 123, 248

communication with, 99, 260

cooperation among, 189, 196

empathy in, 132

imitation in, 156

individual recognition by, 261–63

memory in, 263

self-recognition in, 243–44

shapes of, 75

signature whistles of, 262

targeted helping by, 133–34,
133

uncertainty response in, 230, 232

dual-gender signaling, 252

Dücker, Gerti, 245

ducklings, 32–33

Dunbar, Robin, 176

Eba (macaque), 52

echolocation, 10, 11, 12, 22, 75

ecological niche, 8, 320

Elephant Conservation Center, Thailand, 189

elephants:

brain size of, 123

complex cognition of, 43

cooperation between, 186, 189–90

embodied cognition in, 159–60

empathy in, 132

future orientation in, 205

listening, 237–40

mirror tests of, 17–18, 157, 235–36,
236

neurons in brain of, 124, 160

politics among, 201–3

self-recognition in, 243

tool use by, 15,
16

trunks of, 15

Umwelt
of, 237

Eli (dog), 115–16, 117

Embodied cognition,
see
cognition, embodied

Emery, Nathan, 147

emotions, 41, 45, 96, 106, 114, 273

empathic perspective taking, 132–40

empathy, 61, 132–33, 176, 275

Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA), 45

episodic memory, 207–12, 229, 320

equivalence learning, 183

Estosha National Park, Namibia, 202

ethnic triumphalism, 127