Bloodlands (92 page)
Authors: Timothy Snyder
40
On Gottberg, see Klein, “Massenmörder,” 95-99. On Bach and for the numbers cited, see Lück, “Partisanbekämpfung,” 233, 239.
On Gottberg, see Klein, “Massenmörder,” 95-99. On Bach and for the numbers cited, see Lück, “Partisanbekämpfung,” 233, 239.
41
Stang, “Dirlewanger,” 66-70; Ingrao,
Chasseurs
, 20-21, figure (“at least thirty thousand civilians”) at 26, 132; Gerlach,
Kalkulierte Morde
, 958; MacLean,
Hunters
, 28, 133.
Stang, “Dirlewanger,” 66-70; Ingrao,
Chasseurs
, 20-21, figure (“at least thirty thousand civilians”) at 26, 132; Gerlach,
Kalkulierte Morde
, 958; MacLean,
Hunters
, 28, 133.
42
On the kill quotas, see Gerlach,
Kalkulierte Morde
, 890. On Operation Swamp Fever, see Gerlach,
Kalkulierte Morde
, 911-913, 930; Benz,
Einsatz
, 239; Matthäus, “Reibungslos,” 267; and Ingrao,
Chasseurs
, 34. On Jeckeln, see Brakel,
Unter Rotem Stern
, 295. On Hornung, see Gerlach,
Kalkulierte Morde
, 946; and Klein, “Massenmörder,” 100.
On the kill quotas, see Gerlach,
Kalkulierte Morde
, 890. On Operation Swamp Fever, see Gerlach,
Kalkulierte Morde
, 911-913, 930; Benz,
Einsatz
, 239; Matthäus, “Reibungslos,” 267; and Ingrao,
Chasseurs
, 34. On Jeckeln, see Brakel,
Unter Rotem Stern
, 295. On Hornung, see Gerlach,
Kalkulierte Morde
, 946; and Klein, “Massenmörder,” 100.
43
Brakel,
Unter Rotem Stern
, 304; Smilovitsky, “Antisemitism,” 220. On the prewar communists, see Rein, “Local Collaborators,” 394.
Brakel,
Unter Rotem Stern
, 304; Smilovitsky, “Antisemitism,” 220. On the prewar communists, see Rein, “Local Collaborators,” 394.
44
On the eight hundred policemen and militiamen, see Musial,
Mythos
, 266. On the twelve thousand, see Mironowicz,
Białoruś
, 160. See also Slepyan,
Guerillas
, 209.
On the eight hundred policemen and militiamen, see Musial,
Mythos
, 266. On the twelve thousand, see Mironowicz,
Białoruś
, 160. See also Slepyan,
Guerillas
, 209.
46
On October 1942, see Nolte, “Partisan War,” 274.
On October 1942, see Nolte, “Partisan War,” 274.
47
Klein, “Zwischen,” 100.
Klein, “Zwischen,” 100.
48
On Operation Cottbus, see Gerlach,
Kalkulierte Morde
, 948; Pohl,
Herrschaft
, 293; Musial,
Mythos
, 195; and
Verbrechen
, 492. On the swine, see Lück, “Partisanbekämpfung,” 241.
On Operation Cottbus, see Gerlach,
Kalkulierte Morde
, 948; Pohl,
Herrschaft
, 293; Musial,
Mythos
, 195; and
Verbrechen
, 492. On the swine, see Lück, “Partisanbekämpfung,” 241.
52
Shephard, “Wild East,” 174; Angrick,
Einsatzgruppe D
, 680-689. Quotation: Lück, “Partisanbekämpfung,” 242.
Shephard, “Wild East,” 174; Angrick,
Einsatzgruppe D
, 680-689. Quotation: Lück, “Partisanbekämpfung,” 242.
53
Birn, “Anti-Partisan Warfare,” 291; see also, generally, Klein, “Zwischen,” 96.
Birn, “Anti-Partisan Warfare,” 291; see also, generally, Klein, “Zwischen,” 96.
57
Musial, “Sowjetische,” 183.
Musial, “Sowjetische,” 183.
58
On the figures cited (“fifteen thousand” and “ninety-two”), see Ingrao,
Chasseurs
, 36. For the figure of 5,295 localities, see Gerlach,
Kalkulierte Morde
, 943. On the 10,431 partisans reported shot, see Klee,
Gott mit uns
, 55. On the diary, see Lück, “Partisanbekämpfung,” 239. See also Matthäus, “Reibungslos,” 268.
On the figures cited (“fifteen thousand” and “ninety-two”), see Ingrao,
Chasseurs
, 36. For the figure of 5,295 localities, see Gerlach,
Kalkulierte Morde
, 943. On the 10,431 partisans reported shot, see Klee,
Gott mit uns
, 55. On the diary, see Lück, “Partisanbekämpfung,” 239. See also Matthäus, “Reibungslos,” 268.
60
On the killing of 17,431 people as traitors, see
Musial
, Mythos, 261. On class enemies, see Jasiewicz,
Zagłada
, 264-265.
On the killing of 17,431 people as traitors, see
Musial
, Mythos, 261. On class enemies, see Jasiewicz,
Zagłada
, 264-265.
61
Gerlach,
Kalkulierte Morde
, 1160. Chiari estimates that 276,000 Poles had been killed or moved by the end of the war; see
Alltag
, 306.
CHAPTER 8: THE NAZI DEATH FACTORIESGerlach,
Kalkulierte Morde
, 1160. Chiari estimates that 276,000 Poles had been killed or moved by the end of the war; see
Alltag
, 306.
2
Quotation: Wasser,
Raumplannung
, 61, also 77. On the special status of Lublin, see Arad,
Reinhard
, 14; Musiał, “Przypadek,” 24; and Dwork,
Auschwitz
, 290. On the implementation of Generalplan Ost known as the “Zamość Action,” see Autuchiewicz, “Stan,” 71; Aly,
Architects
, 275; and Tooze,
Wages of Destruction
, 468. On the date cited (13 October 1941), see Pohl, “Znaczenie,” 45.
Quotation: Wasser,
Raumplannung
, 61, also 77. On the special status of Lublin, see Arad,
Reinhard
, 14; Musiał, “Przypadek,” 24; and Dwork,
Auschwitz
, 290. On the implementation of Generalplan Ost known as the “Zamość Action,” see Autuchiewicz, “Stan,” 71; Aly,
Architects
, 275; and Tooze,
Wages of Destruction
, 468. On the date cited (13 October 1941), see Pohl, “Znaczenie,” 45.
4
On the lack of personnel, see Musiał, “Przypadek,” 31. On German preferences, see Black, “Handlanger,” 315.
On the lack of personnel, see Musiał, “Przypadek,” 31. On German preferences, see Black, “Handlanger,” 315.
7
Quotation: Gerlach, “Wannsee,” 782. See also Rieß, “Wirth,” 244; Pohl, “Znaczenie,” 45; and Poprzeczny,
Globocnik
, 163. On Wirth’s role, see Black, “Prosty,” 105; and Scheffler, “Probleme,” 270, 276. The “euthanasia” program continued, with greater
stealth, now with the use of lethal injections and drug overdoses. Tens of thousands more Germans were killed in the years to come.
Quotation: Gerlach, “Wannsee,” 782. See also Rieß, “Wirth,” 244; Pohl, “Znaczenie,” 45; and Poprzeczny,
Globocnik
, 163. On Wirth’s role, see Black, “Prosty,” 105; and Scheffler, “Probleme,” 270, 276. The “euthanasia” program continued, with greater
stealth, now with the use of lethal injections and drug overdoses. Tens of thousands more Germans were killed in the years to come.
9
Quotation: Kershaw,
Final Solution
, 66. See also, generally, Mallmann, “Rozwiązać,” 85-95, date at 95; Horwitz,
Ghettostadt
, 154; and Friedländer,
Origins
, 314-318. On Lange, see Friedlander,
Origins
, 286; and Kershaw,
Final Solution
, 71.
Quotation: Kershaw,
Final Solution
, 66. See also, generally, Mallmann, “Rozwiązać,” 85-95, date at 95; Horwitz,
Ghettostadt
, 154; and Friedländer,
Origins
, 314-318. On Lange, see Friedlander,
Origins
, 286; and Kershaw,
Final Solution
, 71.
12
Arad,
Reinhard
, 44, 56; Młynarczyk,
Judenmord
, 252, 257. On 14 March, see Rieger,
Globocnik
, 108. On the 1,600 Jews who lacked labor documents, see Poprzeczny,
Globocnik
, 226.
Arad,
Reinhard
, 44, 56; Młynarczyk,
Judenmord
, 252, 257. On 14 March, see Rieger,
Globocnik
, 108. On the 1,600 Jews who lacked labor documents, see Poprzeczny,
Globocnik
, 226.
15
For the figure 434,508, see Witte, “New Document,” 472. Pohl counts three survivors; see
Verfolgung
, 95. On Wirth, see Black, “Prosty,” 104. The commander of Bełżec as of August 1942 was Gottlieb Hering.
For the figure 434,508, see Witte, “New Document,” 472. Pohl counts three survivors; see
Verfolgung
, 95. On Wirth, see Black, “Prosty,” 104. The commander of Bełżec as of August 1942 was Gottlieb Hering.
18
On 17 April, see Pohl, “Znaczenie,” 49. On 1 June, see “Obóz zagłady,” 134.
On 17 April, see Pohl, “Znaczenie,” 49. On 1 June, see “Obóz zagłady,” 134.
20
On Frank, see Arad,
Reinhard
, 46; Berenstein, “Praca,” 87; and Kershaw,
Final Solution
, 106. On the Trawniki men, see Młynarczyk, “Akcja,” 55.
On Frank, see Arad,
Reinhard
, 46; Berenstein, “Praca,” 87; and Kershaw,
Final Solution
, 106. On the Trawniki men, see Młynarczyk, “Akcja,” 55.
23
Gerlach, “Wannsee,” 791. See also Pohl, “Znaczenie,” 49.
Gerlach, “Wannsee,” 791. See also Pohl, “Znaczenie,” 49.
26
Quotation: Witte, “New Document,” 477.
Quotation: Witte, “New Document,” 477.
27
Arad,
Reinhard
, 61; Młynarczyk, “Akcja,” 55; Urynowicz, “Zagłada,” 108; Friedländer,
Extermination
, 428; Hilburg, “Ghetto,” 108. On the promised bread and marmalade, see Berenstein, “Praca,” 142. Quotation: FVA 2327.
Arad,
Reinhard
, 61; Młynarczyk, “Akcja,” 55; Urynowicz, “Zagłada,” 108; Friedländer,
Extermination
, 428; Hilburg, “Ghetto,” 108. On the promised bread and marmalade, see Berenstein, “Praca,” 142. Quotation: FVA 2327.
31
On Korczak, see Kassow,
History
, 268; and Friedländer,
Extermination
, 429. Quotation: Engelking,
Getto
, 676.
On Korczak, see Kassow,
History
, 268; and Friedländer,
Extermination
, 429. Quotation: Engelking,
Getto
, 676.
32
For the cited figures, see Friedländer,
Extermination
, 230. Higher estimates are in Drozdowski, “History,” 192 (315,000), and Bartoszewski,
Warszawski pierścień
, 195 (310,322).
For the cited figures, see Friedländer,
Extermination
, 230. Higher estimates are in Drozdowski, “History,” 192 (315,000), and Bartoszewski,
Warszawski pierścień
, 195 (310,322).
36
Arad,
Reinhard
, 81; Mlynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 266; “Obóz zagłady,” 141; Królikowski, “Budowałem,” 49.
Arad,
Reinhard
, 81; Mlynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 266; “Obóz zagłady,” 141; Królikowski, “Budowałem,” 49.
37
On 22 August, see Evans,
Third Reich at War
, 290. On 23 August, see Mlynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 262. On 24 August, see Wiernik,
Year
, 8. On 25 August, see Krzepicki, “Treblinka,” 98. On 26 August, see Shoah 02694, in FVA. Stangl quotation (21 August): Sereny,
Darkness
, 157.
On 22 August, see Evans,
Third Reich at War
, 290. On 23 August, see Mlynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 262. On 24 August, see Wiernik,
Year
, 8. On 25 August, see Krzepicki, “Treblinka,” 98. On 26 August, see Shoah 02694, in FVA. Stangl quotation (21 August): Sereny,
Darkness
, 157.
42
On the Polish government, see Libionka, “ZWZ-AK,” 36-53. On the contemplated attack, see Libionka, “Polska konspiracja,” 482. On the postcards, see Hilberg, “Judenrat,” 34. On the postal service, see Sakowska,
Ludzie
, 312.
On the Polish government, see Libionka, “ZWZ-AK,” 36-53. On the contemplated attack, see Libionka, “Polska konspiracja,” 482. On the postcards, see Hilberg, “Judenrat,” 34. On the postal service, see Sakowska,
Ludzie
, 312.
43
On the “clinic,” see “Obóz zagłady,” 137; Glazar,
Falle
, 51; Arad,
Reinhard
, 122; and Mlynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 267. On the “station,” see “Obóz zagłady,” 137; Arad,
Reinhard
, 123; and Willenberg,
Revolt
, 96. On the orchestra, see “Tremblinki,” 40; and “Treblinka,” 193. On the Yiddish, see Krzepicki, “Treblinka,” 89.
On the “clinic,” see “Obóz zagłady,” 137; Glazar,
Falle
, 51; Arad,
Reinhard
, 122; and Mlynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 267. On the “station,” see “Obóz zagłady,” 137; Arad,
Reinhard
, 123; and Willenberg,
Revolt
, 96. On the orchestra, see “Tremblinki,” 40; and “Treblinka,” 193. On the Yiddish, see Krzepicki, “Treblinka,” 89.
44
“Treblinka,” 178; Arad,
Reinhard
, 37; Mlynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 269. On the rapes, see Willenberg,
Revolt
, 105.
“Treblinka,” 178; Arad,
Reinhard
, 37; Mlynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 269. On the rapes, see Willenberg,
Revolt
, 105.
47
Kopówka,
Treblinka
, 34; Mlynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 263, 269. On the “metamorphosis,” see Rajchman,
Le dernier Juif
, 88.
Kopówka,
Treblinka
, 34; Mlynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 263, 269. On the “metamorphosis,” see Rajchman,
Le dernier Juif
, 88.
48
Rajgrodzki, “W obozie zagłady,” 107. Arad,
Reinhard
, 174. On the Germans warming themselves, see Wiernik,
Year
, 29. On the women naked in the cold, see Rajchman,
Le dernier Juif
, 96.
Rajgrodzki, “W obozie zagłady,” 107. Arad,
Reinhard
, 174. On the Germans warming themselves, see Wiernik,
Year
, 29. On the women naked in the cold, see Rajchman,
Le dernier Juif
, 96.
49
For “It’s no use,” see Rajchman,
Le dernier Juif
, 33. On the embrace and Ruth Dorfmann, see Willenberg,
Revolt
, 56, 65.
For “It’s no use,” see Rajchman,
Le dernier Juif
, 33. On the embrace and Ruth Dorfmann, see Willenberg,
Revolt
, 56, 65.
50
On the local economy, see Willenberg,
Revolt
, 30; and Rusiniak,
Obóz
, 26. On “Europe,” see Rusiniak,
Obóz
, 27.
On the local economy, see Willenberg,
Revolt
, 30; and Rusiniak,
Obóz
, 26. On “Europe,” see Rusiniak,
Obóz
, 27.
52
On the dismantling, see Arad,
Reinhard
, 373. On Operation Harvest Festival (Erntefest), see Arad,
Reinhard
, 366. Some 15,000 Białystok Jews were also shot; see Bender, “Białystok,” 25.
On the dismantling, see Arad,
Reinhard
, 373. On Operation Harvest Festival (Erntefest), see Arad,
Reinhard
, 366. Some 15,000 Białystok Jews were also shot; see Bender, “Białystok,” 25.
53
The sources of the Treblinka count are Witte, “New Document,” 472, which provides the Germans’ count for 1942 of 713,555 (intercepted by the British); and
Młynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 281, which supplies a 1943 reckoning of 67,308. For the Radom estimate, see Młynarczyk,
Judenmord
, 275. Wiernik claims that there were two transports of (uncircumcised) Poles; see
Year
, 35. “Obóz zagłady,” a report published in Warsaw in early 1946, gives the estimate 731,600, and provides much basic information.
The sources of the Treblinka count are Witte, “New Document,” 472, which provides the Germans’ count for 1942 of 713,555 (intercepted by the British); and
Młynarczyk, “Treblinka,” 281, which supplies a 1943 reckoning of 67,308. For the Radom estimate, see Młynarczyk,
Judenmord
, 275. Wiernik claims that there were two transports of (uncircumcised) Poles; see
Year
, 35. “Obóz zagłady,” a report published in Warsaw in early 1946, gives the estimate 731,600, and provides much basic information.
55
Kamenec, “Holocaust,” 200-201; Kamenec, “Deportation,” 116, 123, figure at 130.
Kamenec, “Holocaust,” 200-201; Kamenec, “Deportation,” 116, 123, figure at 130.
58
Pohl,
Verfolgung
, 107; Hilberg,
Destruction
(vol. III), 959; Stark,
Hungarian Jews
, 30; Długoborski, “Żydzi,” 147.
Pohl,
Verfolgung
, 107; Hilberg,
Destruction
(vol. III), 959; Stark,
Hungarian Jews
, 30; Długoborski, “Żydzi,” 147.
59
Although we know the number of dead in these facilities with some precision, the precise number of Polish Jews is difficult to extract from the larger figure. Although Treblinka, Sobibór, and Bełżec were primarily killing centers for the Polish Jews of the General Government, other people also died in these three places, especially in 1943: Czechoslovak Jews, German Jews, Dutch Jews, French Jews, as well as Poles and Roma.
Although we know the number of dead in these facilities with some precision, the precise number of Polish Jews is difficult to extract from the larger figure. Although Treblinka, Sobibór, and Bełżec were primarily killing centers for the Polish Jews of the General Government, other people also died in these three places, especially in 1943: Czechoslovak Jews, German Jews, Dutch Jews, French Jews, as well as Poles and Roma.
60
On the Roma, see Pohl,
Verfolgung
, 113-116; Evans,
Third Reich at War
, 72-73, 531-535; and Klein, “Gottberg,” 99.
On the Roma, see Pohl,
Verfolgung
, 113-116; Evans,
Third Reich at War
, 72-73, 531-535; and Klein, “Gottberg,” 99.
61
For the “wonderful song,” see Glazar, 57. On music as “revolutionary,” see Rajgrodzki, “W obozie zagłady,” 109. On “el male rachamim,” see Arad,
Reinhard
, 216.
CHAPTER 9: RESISTANCE AND INCINERATIONFor the “wonderful song,” see Glazar, 57. On music as “revolutionary,” see Rajgrodzki, “W obozie zagłady,” 109. On “el male rachamim,” see Arad,
Reinhard
, 216.
3
Grossman,
Road
, 27. See also Furet,
Passé
, 536; and Gerard,
Bones
, 187-189. Grossman may not have understood that the signs of the mass murder were visible because the local Polish population had been looking for valuables. It would have been impossible for him to write that the guards at Treblinka were Soviet citizens.
Grossman,
Road
, 27. See also Furet,
Passé
, 536; and Gerard,
Bones
, 187-189. Grossman may not have understood that the signs of the mass murder were visible because the local Polish population had been looking for valuables. It would have been impossible for him to write that the guards at Treblinka were Soviet citizens.
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