Collins Cobuild English Grammar (23 page)

structures used with
no-

1.141
  Indefinite pronouns beginning with
no-
are always used with the affirmative form of a verb, and they make the clause negative. For more information on
negative statements
, see paragraphs
5.47
to
5.91
.

Nobody
said a word.
There was
nothing
you could do,
nothing
at all.
She was to see
no one
, to speak to
nobody
, not even her own children.

Note that they are sometimes used in questions. When this is the case, the answer to the question is usually expected to be
no
.

‘Is there
nothing
I can do?’–‘Not a thing’.
‘Is there
nobody
else?’–‘Not that I know of’.

Showing that people do the same thing:
each other
and
one another

1.142
  
Each other
and
one another
are called
reciprocal pronouns
. They are used to say that people do the same thing, feel the same way, or have the same relationship.

For example, if your brother hates your sister and your sister hates your brother, you can say
My brother and sister hate each other
or
They hate one another
.

Reciprocal pronouns are not used as the subject of a clause. You use them as the object or indirect object of a verb.

We help
each other
a lot.
You and I understand
each other
.
We support
one another
through good times and bad.
They sent
each other
gifts from time to time.

You also use them as the object of a preposition.

Terry and Mark were jealous of
each other
.
The two lights were moving towards
one another
.
They didn’t dare to look at
one another
.

Some verbs are very commonly used with reciprocal pronouns. For more information about these, see paragraphs
3.68
to
3.72
.

1.143
  Note that there is very little difference between
each other
and
one another
. They are both used to talk about two or more people or things, although some people prefer the use of
each other
when there are only two people or things, and
one another
when there are more than two.

each
as subject

1.144
  In formal written English, you can also use
each
as the subject of a clause and
the other
as the object of a clause or preposition. So, a more formal way of saying
They looked at each other
is
Each looked at the other
. Note that
each
is always followed by a singular verb.

Each
accuses
the other
of lying.
Each
is unwilling to learn from the experience of
the others
.

Each
is also a determiner. For more information about this, see paragraph
1.243
.

’s

1.145
  You add
’s
(apostrophe
s
) to
each other
,
one another
, and
the other
to form possessives.

I hope that you all enjoy
each other’s
company.
Apes spend a great deal of time grooming
one another’s
fur.
The males fight fiercely, each trying to seize
the other’s
long neck in its beak.

Joining clauses together: relative pronouns

1.146
  When a sentence consists of a main clause followed by a
relative clause
introduced by
who
,
whom
,
which
, or
that
, these words are called
relative pronouns
.

Relative pronouns do two things at the same time. Like other pronouns, they refer to someone or something that has already been mentioned. At the same time they join clauses together.

For more information about relative clauses, see paragraphs
8.83
to
8.116
.

who
and
whom

1.147
  
Who
and
whom
always refer to people.

Who
can be the subject of a relative clause.

…mathematicians
who
are concerned with very difficult problems.

In the past,
whom
was normally used as the object of a relative clause. Nowadays,
who
is more often used, although some careful speakers of English think that it is more correct to use
whom
.

…a man
who
I met recently.
He’s the man
who
I saw last night.
…two girls
whom
I met in Edinburgh.

Who
is sometimes used as the object of a preposition when the object is separated from the preposition. Some careful speakers think that it is more correct to use
whom
.

That’s the man
who
I gave it to.
…those
whom
we cannot talk to.

Whom
is almost always used when the object comes immediately after the preposition.

…Lord Scarman, a man
for whom
I have immense respect.

which

1.148
  
Which
always refers to things. It can be used as the subject or object of a relative clause, or as the object of a preposition.
Which
is often used in British English to introduce relative clauses that refer to things.

…a region
which
was threatened by growing poverty.
…two horses
which he owned
.
…the house in
which
I was born.

Note that
which
cannot be used as the indirect object of a clause.

that

1.149
  
That
refers to either people or things. It is used as the subject or the object of a relative clause or the object of a preposition.
That
is generally preferred in American English to introduce relative clauses that refer to things or to combinations of people and things.

…the games
that
politicians play.
He’s the boy
that
sang the solo last night.
It was the first bed
that
she had ever slept in.

That
cannot be used as the indirect object of a clause.

whose

1.150
  
Whose
shows who or what something belongs to or is connected with. Note that it cannot be used by itself, but must come in front of a noun.

…the thousands
whose
lives have been damaged.
There was a chap there
whose
name I’ve forgotten.
…predictions
whose
accuracy will have to be confirmed.
…sharks,
whose
brains are minute.

Note that
whose
is not restricted to people.

Asking questions: interrogative pronouns

1.151
  One way of asking questions is by using an
interrogative pronoun
.

The interrogative pronouns are
who
,
whose
,
whom
,
what
, and
which
. They are used as the subject or object of a clause, or as the object of a preposition.
Whose
and
which
are also determiners. Other words, such as
where
,
when
,
why
, and
how
, are also used to ask questions.

Interrogative pronouns are not used as the indirect object of a clause.

Who
was at the door?
‘There’s a car outside.’
‘
Whose
is it?’
Whom
do you support?
What
are you doing?
Which
is best, gas or electric?

For more information about structures in which interrogative pronouns are used, see paragraphs
5.10
to
5.34
.

1.152
  Interrogative pronouns refer to the information you are asking for.

Who
,
whose
, and
whom
are used when you think that the answer to the question will be a person.

‘He lost his wife.’ – ‘
Who
? Terry?’
He looked at the cat.
Whose
is it? Have you ever seen it before?
‘To
whom
, if I may ask, are you engaged to be married?’ – ‘To Daniel Orton.’

Which
and
what
are used when you think that the answer to the question will be something other than a person.

Is there really a difference?
Which
do you prefer?
‘
What
did he want?’ – ‘Maurice’s address.’

reported questions

1.153
  Interrogative pronouns are also used to introduce reported questions.

I asked her
who
she had been talking to.
He wondered
what
Daintry would do now.

For more information about
reported questions
, see paragraphs
7.32
to
7.38
.

Other pronouns

1.154
  Many other words can be pronouns, provided that it is clear what is being talked about, because it is then unnecessary to repeat the noun.

For example, most
indefinite determiners
can also be pronouns. For more information about indefinite determiners, see paragraphs
1.223
to
1.250
.

Here is a list of indefinite determiners that are also pronouns:

all

another

any

both

each

either

enough

few

fewer

less

little

many

more

most

much

neither

several