Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492-1830 (110 page)

82. Cited by Marston, King and Congress, p. 185.

83. Ibid., p. 150.

84. Ibid., p. 38.

85. Ibid., p. 54.

86. Below, p. 388.

87. Cited by J. D. G. Clark, The Language of Liberty, 1660-1832 (Cambridge, 1994), p. 121.

88. Maier, From Resistance to Revolution, p. 266.

89. Cited by Tucker and Hendrickson, Fall of the First British Empire, pp. 66-7.

90. Cited by McCullough, John Adams, pp. 100-1.

91. The Writings of George Washington, ed. John C. Fitzpatrick, vol. 5 (Washington, 1932), p. 92 (31 May 1776).

92. Thomas Paine, Common Sense, ed. Isaac Kramnick (Harmondsworth, 1986), p. 8. For Common Sense and its impact, see especially Eric Foner, Tom Paine and Revolutionary America (1976; updated edn, New York and Oxford, 2005), ch. 3, and the acute analysis by Robert A. Ferguson, `The Commonalities of Common Sense', WMQ, 3rd set., 57 (2000), pp. 465-504.

93. Paine, Common Sense, pp. 68, 97 and 108-9. It should be noted, however, that Paine claimed never to have read Locke.

94. Ibid., p. 68.

95. Cited by McCullough, John Adams, p. 97.

96. Paine, Common Sense, p. 82.

97. Ibid., p. 94.

98. Ibid., p. 98.

99. Pauline Maier, American Scripture. Making the Declaration of Independence (New York, 1997), pp. 34-6.

100. For the marginality of republics in the eighteenth century, see Franco Venturi, Utopia and Reform in the Enlightenment (Cambridge, 1971), ch. 3.

101. cf. Ezra Stiles to Catharine Macaulay 6 December 1773, as cited in Maier, From Resistance to Revolution, p. 289: `My ideas of the Eng[lish] constitution have much diminished.'

102. Paine, Common Sense, p. 120.

103. Above, pp. 187-8.

104. Bloch, Visionary Republic, p. 47, and see part 2 in general for the relationship between millenarianism and the revolution. Also, Ferguson, American Enlightenment, pp. 52-3.

105. Maier, American Scripture, pp. 38-41.

106. Morison, Sources and Documents, p. 148.

107. Ibid., p. 63.

108. Foner, Tom Paine, especially pp. 56-66.

109. Ibid., pp. 127-34; Beeman, Varieties of Political Experience, pp. 270-5.

110. Marston, King and Congress, pp. 286-8 and 292-6; and see also Countryman, The American Revolution, ch. 4, for the differences in the balance of forces and the outcome of the struggle over independence in the various colonies.

111. Maier, American Scripture, pp. 51-8.

112. Wills, Inventing America, p. 325; and for the Declaration of Independence in the context of international relations and alliances, see David Armitage, `The Declaration of Independence and International Law', WMQ, 3rd set., 59 (2002), pp. 39-64.

113. McCullough, John Adams, p. 120; Maier, American Scripture, pp. 100-1.

114. The text of this paragraph, an indictment of George III, as a Christian king, for not suppressing the slave trade, is reproduced in Appendix C of Maier, American Scripture, p. 239.

115. For the editorial process and the approval of the Declaration, see Maier, American Scripture, ch. 3.

116. For analyses of the text, together with the context in which it was produced, see especially Wills, Inventing America, and Maier, American Scripture.

117. For the Dutch Act of Abjuration, see H. G. Koenigsberger, Monarchies, States Generals and Parliaments. The Netherlands in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries (Cambridge, 2001), pp. 296-7. For the conceptual ambiguities involved in the transition from `United Colonies' to `United States', see J. R. Pole, `The Politics of the Word "State" and its Relation to American Sovereignty', Parliaments, Estates and Representation, 8 (1988), pp. 1-10.

118. See Morton White, Philosophy, the Federalist, and the Constitution (New York and Oxford, 1987), pp. 208-11.

119. Wills, Inventing America, ch. 12.

120. 1 follow here the argument developed at length in Huyler, Locke in America.

121. White, Philosophy, p. 181; Wills, Inventing America, ch. 18; and overviews in Darrin McMahon, `From the Happiness of Virtue to the Virtue of Happiness: 400 B.C. - A.D. 1780', Daedalus (Spring, 2004), pp. 5-17, and Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole (eds), The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of the American Revolution (Oxford, 1991), pp. 641-7 (Jan Lewis, `Happiness').

122. The Boston News-Letter, no. 1412, 18 February 1731.

123. Bailyn, To Begin the World Anew, p. 134.

124. Luis Angel Garcia Melero, La independencia de los Estados Unidos de Norteamerica a traves de la prensa espanola (Madrid, 1977), pp. 297-8.

125. Richter, Facing East in Indian Country, pp. 219-21; Colin C. Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country (Cambridge, 1995), ch. 1.

126. For a nuanced account of West Indian reactions to the American Revolution, see O'Shaughnessy An Empire Divided.

127. William H. Nelson, The American Tory (Westport, Conn., 1961), p. 133.

128. Paul H. Smith, `The American Loyalists: Notes on their Organization and Strength', WMQ, 3rd set., 25 (1968), pp. 259-77; R. R. Palmer, The Age of the Democratic Revolution, vol. 1 (Princeton, 1959), p. 188.

129. Wood, The American Revolution, p. 82.

130. For Spain's intervention in the war, see Thomas E. Chavez, Spain and the Independence of the United States. An Intrinsic Gift (Albuquerque, NM, 2003).

131. To Arthur Lee, 4 April 1774, cited in Draper, Struggle for Power, p. 469.

132. Above, p. 304.

133. For Spanish expansion into California, see Weber, Spanish Frontier, ch. 9, and O. H. K. Spate, Monopolists and Freebooters (Minneapolis, 1983), ch. 13.

134. For a brief survey of these various expeditions, including a chronological listing, see the essay by Jose de la Sota Rius, `Spanish Science and Enlightenment Expeditions', in Chiyo Ishikawa (ed.), Spain in the Age of Exploration (Seattle Art Museum Exhibition Catalogue, 2004), pp. 159-87. For Malaspina, see Juan Pimentel, La fisica de la Monarquia. Ciencia y politica en el pensamiento colonial de Alejandro Malaspina, 1754-1810 (Aranjuez, 1998), and Manuel Lucena Giraldo and Juan Pimentel Igea, Los Axiomas politicos sobre la America' de Alejandro Malaspina (Madrid, 1991).

135. This figure is taken from Carlos Marichal, La bancarrota del virreinato. Nueva Espana y las finanzas del imperio espanol, 1780-1810 (Mexico City, 1999), Appendix I, table 1.

136. Garner, `Long-Term Silver Mining Trends', p. 903.

137. Weber, Spanish Frontier, p. 266; Chavez, Spain and the Independence of the United States, p. 216.

138. Alberto Flores Galindo, Buscando on Inca (Lima, 1988), p. 156.

139. Humboldt, Ensayo politico, 2, p. 105 (lib. II, cap. 6).

140. Charles E Walker, Smouldering Ashes. Cuzco and the Creation of Republican Peru, 1780-1840 (Durham, NC, and London, 1999), p. 12; Lillian Estelle Fisher, The Last Inca Revolt, 1780-1783 (Norman, OK, 1966), p. ix. See also for Tupac Amaru's revolt Scarlett O'Phelan Godoy, Rebellion and Revolts in Eighteenth-Century Peru and Upper Peru (Cologne, 1985); Flores Galindo, Buscando un Inca; and parts I and II of Steve J. Stern (ed.), Resistance, Rebellion, and Consciousness in the Andean Peasant World. 18th to 20th Centuries (Madison, WI, 1987). For a short survey of the history of later Bourbon Peru, see John R. Fisher, Bourbon Peru, 1750-1824 (Liverpool, 2003).

141. McFarlane, Colombia Before Independence, p. 250.

142. O'Phelan Godoy, Rebellion, pp. 161-70.

143. Phelan, The People and the King, p. 29.

144. Taylor, Drinking, Homicide and Rebellion, pp. 113-14; Stern (ed.), Resistance, Rebellion, pp. 75-6.

145. Above p. 298, and see especially White, Middle Ground, ch. 7. Gregory Evans Dowd, War under Heaven. Pontiac, the Indian Nations and the British Empire (Baltimore and London, 2002), provides an illuminating account of Pontiac's rebellion.

146. MOrner, The Andean Past, p. 91.

147. O'Phelan Godoy, Rebellion, p. 118.

148. Spalding, Huarochiri, p. 300.

149. Sergio Serulnikov, Subverting Colonial Authority. Challenges to Spanish Rule in the Eighteenth-Century Southern Andes (Durham, NC, and London, 2003), pp. 12-14.

150. O'Phelan Godoy, Rebellion, p. 166; Walker, Smouldering Ashes, pp. 22-3; Alberto Flores Galindo, `La revolucion tupamarista y el imperio espanol', in Massimo Ganci and Ruggiero Romano (eds), Governare it mondo. L'impero spagnolo dal XV al XIX secolo (Palermo, 1991), pp. 387-9.

151. Boleslao Lewin, La rebelion de Tupac Amaru y los orlgenes de la independencia de Hispanoamerica (3rd edn., Buenos Aires, 1967), pp. 283-4; Walker, Smouldering Ashes, pp. 25-7.

152. Flores Galindo, Buscando un Inca, p. 148; Stern (ed.), Resistance, Rebellion, chs 4 and 6.

153. White, Middle Ground, pp. 279-80; Dowd, War under Heaven, pp. 94-105. For extirpation of idolatry campaigns, see above, p. 190.

154. For the ambivalent position of Catholic priests in Bourbon Peru, see Serulnikov, Subverting Colonial Authority, pp. 95-106, and Thomas A. Abercrombie, Pathways of Memory and Power. Ethnography and History Among an Andean People (Madison, Wisconsin, 1998), pp. 294 and 300. I grateful to Professor Abercrombie for advice and suggestions on the Andean world.

155. Cited by Flores Galindo, Buscando un Inca, p. 150.

156. Lewin, La rebelion, pp. 414ff.; Walker, Smouldering Ashes, p. 19.

157. Cited in Lewin, La rebelion, p. 414.

158. Flores Galindo, Buscando un Inca, p. 150.

159. O'Phelan Godoy Rebellion, pp. 213-19.

160. For an excellent analysis of the Inca nobility of Cuzco and their responses to the rebellion, see David T. Garrett, "`His Majesty's Most Loyal Vassals": the Indian Nobility and Tupac Amaru', HAHR, 84 (2004), pp. 575-617.

161. David Cahill, From Rebellion to Independence in the Andes. Soundings from Southern Peru, 1750-1830 (CEDLA Latin American Studies, 89, Amsterdam, 2002), ch. 7.

162. These figures, which come from an account of the rebellion written in 1784, have been contested. See Cahill, From Rebellion to Independence, pp. 120-1.

163. Ibid., p. 118.

164. O'Phelan Godoy, Rebellion, p. 272.

165. For the revolt of the Comuneros, see Phelan, The People and the King, and McFarlane, Colombia Before Independence, pp. 251-71. Also, Fisher, Kuethe and McFarlane (eds), Reform and Insurrection.

166. McFarlane, Colombia Before Independence, pp. 209-14.

167. Phelan, The People and the King, p. 99.

168. Ibid., p. 87.

169. Fisher, Kuethe and McFarlane (eds), Reform and Insurrection, p. 3.

170. Phelan, The People and the King, p. 30; McFarlane, Colombia Before Independence, p. 215.

171. Phelan, The People and the King, ch. 13.

172. McFarlane, Colombia Before Independence, pp. 264 and 278-9. 173. See Phelan, The People and the King, pp. 34-5.

174. Piers Mackesy, The War for America, 1775-1783 (London, 1964), appendix, pp. 524-5. 175. McFarlane, Colombia Before Independence, pp. 259-60.

176. Robert A. Gross, The Minutemen and their World (New York, 1981), pp. 151-3; Shy, A People Numerous, pp. 127-32.

177. Phelan, The People and the King, p. 98.

178. For indications of atrocities in the War of Independence, see Shy, A People Numerous, ch. 8 (Armed Loyalism').

179. See the preface to Joseph Ellis, Founding Brothers. The Revolutionary Generation (London, 2002).

180. McFarlane, Colombia Before Independence, p. 256.

181. Phelan, The People and the King, pp. 239-40; McFarlane, Colombia Before Independence, p. 217.

182. Gongora, Studies in Colonial History, pp. 195-6.

183. Fisher, The Last Inca Revolt, pp. 386-9; Walker, Smouldering Ashes, p. 69.

184. Joseph Perez, Los movimientos precursores de la emancipation en Hispanoamerica (Madrid, 1977), p. 131; and see McFarlane, Colombia Before Independence, pp. 205-6, for the proposals for educational reform.

185. Phelan, The People and the King, p. 244.

186. Cited in Mackesy, The War for America, p. 187.

187. See Gould, Persistence of Empire, ch. 5.

188. Cited in Lewin, La rebelion de Tupac Amaru, p. 413 from Manuel Godoy, Memorias (Madrid, 1836), vol. 3, pp. 285-6.

189. Joaquin Oltra and Maria Angeles Perez Samper, El Conde de Aranda y los Estados Unidos (Barcelona, 1987), pp. 234-8. For the full text of the memorandum, see Manuel Lucena Giraldo (ed.), Premoniciones de la independencia de Iberoamerica (Aranjuez and Madrid, 2003), pp. 75-85.

190. Cited in Gould, Persistence of Empire, p. 166.

191. Cited by Liss, Atlantic Empires, p. 142.

1. See Merrill Jensen, The Articles of Confederation. An Interpretation of the SocialConstitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774-1781 (Madison, WI, 1940; repr. 1948) for the divisions between conservatives and radicals.

2. Above, p. 346.

3. Clinton Rossiter, 1787. The Grand Convention (1966; New York, 1987), p. 138. For valuable insights into the national debate of 1787 and beyond, see John M. Murrin, `The Great Inversion, or Court versus Country: a Comparison of the Revolutionary Settlements in England (1688-1721) and America (1776-1816)', in Pocock (ed.), Three British Revolutions, pp. 368-453, and Isaac Kramnick, `The "Great National Discussion": the Discourse of Politics in 1787', WMQ, 3rd set., 45 (1988), pp. 3-32. Also, more generally, for the creation of the republic, Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1969; repr. 1998), and Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism (Oxford, 1993).

4. Rossiter, 1787, p. 145.

5. Ibid., pp. 266-7.

6. Bernard Bailyn (ed.), The Debate on the Constitution, 2 vols (New York, 1993), 1, p. 310 (Jefferson to William Stephens Smith, 13 November 1787).