How Everyone Became Depressed (34 page)

81. Thorazine ad, Diseases of the Nervous System, 17 (1956), 148.
82. Thorazine ad, New York State Journal of Medicine, 56 (1956), 781.
83. Ralph W. Gerard, “Drugs for the Soul: The Rise of Psychopharmacology,” Science, 125 (Feb. 1, 1957), 201–203, p. 201.
84. Malcolm H. Lader et al., “Clinical Comparison of Anxiolytic Drug Therapy,” Psychological Medicine, 4 (1974), 381–387.
85. Patricia Pearson, A Brief History of Anxiety: Yours and Mine (New York: Bloomsbury USA, 2008), 8–9.
86. Giel J. M. Hutschemaekers, “The Historical-Contextualist Approach: The Case of Neurotic Anxiety,” in J. R. van de Vijver and Giel J. M. Hutschemaekers, Eds., The Investigation of Culture: Current Issues in Cultural Psychology (Tilburg: Tilburg University Press, 1990), 133–152, pp. 134–135.
87. Jeffrey S. Harman et al., “Physician Office Visits of Adults for Anxiety Disorders in the United States, 1985–1998,” Journal of General Internal Medicine, 17 (2002), 165–172, p. 169, Fig. 1.
88. Stanley Cobb and Mandel E. Cohen, “Experimental Production During Rebreathing of Sighing Respiration and Symptoms Resembling Those in Anxiety Attacks in Patients with Anxiety Neurosis,” Journal of Clinical Investigation, 19 (1940), 789.
89. Mandel E. Cohen and Paul D. White, “Life Situations, Emotions, and Neurocirculatory Asthenia (Anxiety Neurosis, Neurasthenia, Effort Syndrome),” Psychosomatic Medicine, 13 (1951), 335–357, p. 337
90. Ferris N. Pitts, Jr. and James N. McClure, Jr., “Lactate Metabolism in Anxiety Neurosis,” NEJM, 277 (Dec. 21, 1967), 1329–1336, p. 1334.
91. Cassidy, JAMA (1957), 1538, Tab. 3.
92. Douglas Goldman, discussion, in Nathan S. Kline, Ed., Psychopharmacology Frontiers: Second International Congress of Psychiatry: Proceedings of the Psychopharmacology Symposium [Boston: Little Brown, (1957)], 469.
93. Martin Roth, “The Phobic Anxiety-Depersonalization Syndrome,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 52 (1959), 587–596, p. 590.
94. Donald F. Klein, “Delineation of Two Drug-Responsive Anxiety Syndromes,” Psychopharmacologia, 5 (1964), 397–408.
95. Donald F. Klein, “Medication in the Treatment of Panic Attacks and Phobic States,” Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 18 (1982), 85–90.
96. Panic was mentioned in DSM-II in 1968 as an extreme form of anxiety neurosis but not given independent diagnostic status. American Psychiatric Association, DSM-II: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 2nd ed. (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1968), 9.
97. See Kjell Modigh, “Antidepressant Drugs in Anxiety Disorders,” Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 76 (Suppl. 335) (1987), 57–71.
98. Stelazine ad, Diseases of the Nervous System, 28 (1967).
99. Ativan (lorazepam)ad, AJP, 144 (1987).
100. Peter Tyrer,personal communication, Oct. 22, 2001.
101. On these events see Myrna Weissman, interview, “Gerald Klerman and Psychopharmacology,” in David Healy, Ed., The Psychopharmacologists, Vol. 2 (London: Altman, 1998), 521–542, pp. 534–535. The Healy volume also contains an interview of Marks (pp. 543–560).
102. On increased anxiety about “unpredictable aversive events” as a marker for panic disorder, see Christian Grillon et al., “Increased Anxiety During Anticipation of Unpredictable But Not Predictable Aversive Stimuli as a Psychophysiologic Marker of Panic Disorder,” AJP, 165 (2008), 898–899.

1 . FD-C Reports/Pink Sheet, Feb. 25, 1957, 11–12.
2. J. Frei, “Contribution à l’étude de l’hystérie: Probl èmes de definition et évolution de la symptomatologie,” Archives Suisses de Neurologie, Neurochirurgie et de Psychiatrie, 134 (1984), 93–129, pp. 123–124.
3. Palma E. Formica, “The Housewife Syndrome: Treatment with the Potassium and Magnesium Salts of Aspartic Acid,” Current Therapeutic Research, 4 (1962), 98–106, pp. 98–99.
4. Edward Sachar and Miron Baron, “The Biology of Affective Disorders,” Annual Review of Neuroscience, 2 (1979), 505–518, p. 505.
5. Paul Leber, in discussion. Food and Drug Administration, Psychopharmacologic Drugs Advisory Committee, transcript of meeting of Feb. 24, 1983, Vol. 1, 155–156; obtained from the FDA through the Freedom of Information Act. 6. Paul Hoch, “The Effect of Chlorpromazine on Moderate and Mild Mental and Emotional Disturbances,” in Chlorpromazine and Mental Health: Proceedings of the Symposium Held Under the Auspices of Smith, Kline & French Laboratories, June 6, 1955 (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1955), 99–111, p. 103.
7. The Lord [Stephen] Taylor, “The Role of Environment in Psychopathy, Psychosis and Neurosis,” in Psychiatric Research in Our Changing World: Proceedings of the International Symposium to Commemorate the 25th Anniversary of the Founding of the Department of Psychiatry of McGill University, Montreal, 3–5 October 1968 (Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1969), 41–49, p. 42.
8. Eugene S. Paykel and George Winokur, “Editorial,” Journal of Affective Disorders,10 (1986), 1.
9. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Food and Drug Administration, Psychopharmacologic Drugs Advisory Committee, meeting transcript May 18, 1992, 259–260. Obtained from the Food and Drug Administration with the Freedom of Information Act.
10. See Richard Cassirer, “Die vasomotorisch-trophischen Neurosen,” Zentralblatt für Nervenheilkunde, NF 11 (1900), 591–598; Max Rosenfeld, “Zur Kasuistik der vasomotorischen-trophischen Neurose,” Centralblatt für Nervenheilkunde und Psychiatrie, NF 17 (1906), 665–680.
11. Walter Cimbal, “Vegetative Äquivalente der Depressionszustä nde,” Deutsche Zeitschrift für Nervenheilkunde, 107 (1928), 36–41, p. 36.
12. Bernhard Wichmann, “Das vegetative Syndrom und seine Behandlung,” Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift, 68 (Oct. 5, 1934), 1500–1504.
13. GeorgeBeaumont, interview,“The Place of Clomipramine in Psychopharmacology,” in David Healy, Ed., The Psychopharmacologists, Vol. 1 (London: Chapman & Hall, 1996), 309–327, p. 327
14. On the “overwhelming number of neurotic states [that] are in reality mild or severe depressions,” see Leslie Hohman, “Some Facts That the Internist Should Know About Depressions,” Diseases of the Nervous System, 1 (1940), 7–10, p. 9.
15. V. A. Kral, “Masked Depression in Middle Aged Men,” Canadian Medical Association Journal, 79 (1958), 1–5. Kral believed that the “low sedation threshold” of the patients differentiated them from neurotic anxiety reactions. 16. Franz Alexander, Psychosomatic Medicine (New York: Norton, 1950). 17. Anthony Hordern, “The Antidepressant Drugs,” NEJM, 272 ( June 3, 1965), 1159– 1169, p. 1160.
18. The index of Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine, which is the standard work, does not contain the term “psychosomatic.” And we can search the extensive dermatology chapters in vain for any references to the work of Franz Alexander. Dennis L. Kasper et al., Eds., Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine, 16th ed. (New York: McGraw Hill, 2005).
19. Herman van Praag, discussion, in Paul Kielholz, Ed., La depression masquée (Bern: Huber, 1973), 28; the conference, given over to the proposition that “masked depression” constituted an important but hitherto poorly recognized clinical entity, was sponsored by Ciba-Geigy and turned out to be a kind of infomercial for the company’s antidepressant drug Ludiomil (maprotiline) that, strangely enough, was being indicated for what was called “depressio sine depressione.” The conference dwelled long upon varying somatic symptoms as underlying depressive “equivalents.” Yet the real point would have been the following: To what extent are somatic symptoms and nonmelancholic depression both manifestations of a deeper underlying illness, called here the nervous s y ndrome?
20. Dietrich Blumer and Mary Heilbronn, “Chronic Pain as a Variant of Depressive Disease: The Pain-Prone Disorder,” Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 170 (1982), 381–406. In fact, on the basis of Blumer’s clinical criteria, these patients did tend to fulfill the criteria for the nervous syndrome.

1. Gary Langer, “On Air: Use of Anti-Depressants Is a Long-Term Practice,” abcNEWS.com. w.abcnews.go.com/onair/WorldNewsTonight/poll00410.html. ABC, Apr. 10, 2002.

2. Details may be found in Edward Shorter, Historical Dictionary of Psychiatry(New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), passim.
3. David H. Barlow and Laura A. Campbell, “Mixed Anxiety-Depression and Its Implications for Models of Mood and Anxiety Disorders,” Comprehensive Psychiatry, 41 (Suppl. 1) (2000), 55–60. This was the first of a number of contributions by Barlow on this theme.
4. Salvatore J. Enna, interview, in Thomas A. Ban, Ed., An Oral History of Neuropsychopharmacology: The First Fifty Years. Peer Interviews, Vol. 3 (Brentwood, TN: ACNP, 2011), 135–157, p. 151.
5. George I. Papakostas, “Surrogate Markers of Treatment Outcome in Major Depressive Disorder,” International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 2011. DOI: 10.1017/S1461145711001246.
6. Paul H. Patterson, Infectious Behavior: Brain-Immune Connections in Autism, Schizophrenia, and Depression (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011), 112.
7. Charles A. Sanislow, Bruce N. Cuthbert et al., “Developing Constructs for Psychopathology Research: Research Domain Criteria,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119 (2010), 631–639, pp. 637–638.
8. Michael Alan Taylor and Max Fink, Melancholia: The Diagnosis, Pathophysiology, and Treatment of Depressive Illness (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 220–231.
9. See Edward Shorter, Before Prozac: The Troubled History of Mood Disorders in Psychiatry (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 33. Today, Seroquel (quetiapine), initially launched as an antipsychotic in 1997, is occasionally referred to as “an all-purpose nerve tonic.”
10. Richard Shader interview, in Thomas A. Ban, Ed., An Oral History of Neuropsychopharmacology, Vol. 8 (Brentwood, TN: American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 2011), 326.