Kanzi: The Ape at the Brink of the Human Mind (51 page)

17
. Christophe Boesch, “Aspects of Transmission of Tool-Use in Wild Chimpanzees,” in
Tools, Language and Cognition
, eds. Gibson and Ingold, 171–183, p. 177.

1
. Robert Yerkes,
Almost Human
(New York: Century Company, 1925), 180.

2
. R. Allen Gardner and Beatrice T. Gardner, “Comparative Psychology and Language Acquisition,”
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 309
(1978): 37–76, p. 73.

3
. Thomas Sebeok, “Performing Animals,”
Psychology Today
, November 1979, 78–91, p. 79.

4
. Nicholas Wade, “Does Man Alone Have Language?”
Science
208 (1980): 1349–1351, p. 1349.

5
. Thomas Sebeok and Jean Umiker-Sebeok, cited in Wade, “Does Man Alone Have Language?” 1351.

6
. Herbert Terrace, “Why Koko Can’t Talk,”
The Sciences
, December 1982, 8–10, p. 8.

7
. Gardner and Gardner, “Comparative Psychology,” 73.

8
. Herbert Terrace, “How Nim Chimpsky Changed My Mind,”
Psychology Today
, November 1979, 65–76, p. 67.

9
. Ibid., 75.

10
. Herbert Terrace et al., “Can an Ape Create a Sentence?”
Science
206 (1979): 892–902, p. 892.

11
. Ibid., 901.

12
. E. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh and Duane R. Rumbaugh, “A Response to Herbert Terrace’s Paper, Linguistic Apes,”
The Psychological Record 30
(1980): 315–318, p. 318.

13
. E. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh et al., “Do Apes Use Language?”
American Scientist
68 (1980): 49–61, p. 61.

1
. Robert Epstein
et al., “Symbolic Communication Between Two Pigeons,”
Science
207 (1980): 543–545, p. 545.

2
. E. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh and Duane Rumbaugh, “Requisites of Symbolic Communication,”
The Psychological Record
30 (1980): 305–318, p. 305. See also: E. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh.
Ape Language: From Conditioned Response to Symbol
. New York: Columbia University Press, 1986.

3
. Terrace, “How Nim Chimpsky Changed My Mind,” 67–68.

1
. Yerkes,
Almost Human
, 255.

2
. Robert M. Yerkes and Blanche W. Learned,
Chimpanzee Intelligence
(Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Company, 1925), 48–49.

3
. Ibid., 31.

4
. Yerkes,
Almost Human
, 248.

5
. Dirk Thys van den Audenaerde, “The Tervuren Museum and the Pygmy Chimpanzee,” pp. 3–11, in
The Pygmy Chimpanzee: Evolutionary Biology and Behavior
, ed. Randall Susman (New York: Plenum Press, 1984), 3.

6
. Harold J. Coolidge, “Historical Remarks Bearing on the Discovery of
Pan paniscus,”
pp. ix-xiii, in
The Pygmy Chimpanzee
, ed. Susman, xii.

7
. Ibid., xii.

8
. Harold J. Coolidge,
“Pan paniscus:
Pigmy Chimpanzee from South of the Congo River,”
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
17, no. 1 (1933): 1–57, p. 56.

9
. Adrienne Zihlman et al., “Pygmy Chimpanzee as a Possible Prototype for the Common Ancestor of Humans, Chimpanzees, and Gorillas,”
Nature
275 (1978): 744–746, p. 744.

10
. Charles Darwin,
The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex
(London: John Murray, 1871), 199.

11
. Adrienne Zihlman, “Pygmy Chimps, People, and the Pundits,”
New Scientist
, 15 November 1984, 39.

12
. Henry M. McHenry, “The Common Ancestor,” pp. 201–230, in
The Pygmy Chimpanzee
, ed. Susman, 218.

13
.
Takayoshi Kano,
The Last Ape
(Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992), ix.

14
. Ibid., x.

15
. E. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh and Beverly J. Wilkerson, “Socio-Sexual Behavior in
Pan paniscus
and
Pan troglodytes:
A Comparative Study,”
Journal of Human Evolution 7
(1978): 327–344, p. 337.

16
. Kano,
Last Ape
, 192.

17
. Savage-Rumbaugh and Wilkerson, “Socio-Sexual Behavior,” 341.

18
. Kano,
Last Ape
, 162.

19
. Ibid., 209.

20
. Ibid., 211–12.

21
. Ibid., 91.

22
. Ibid., 182.

23
. Ibid., 102.

24
. Ellen J. Ingmanson, “Branch Dragging by Pygmy Chimpanzees at Wamba, Zaire,”
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
78 (1989): 244.

25
. Kano,
Last Ape
, viii.

1
. E. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh et al., “Spontaneous Symbol Acquisition and Communicative Use by Pygmy Chimpanzees (
Pan paniscus),” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
115, no. 3 (1986): 211–235, p. 214.

2
. E. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh et al., “Language Learning in Two Species of Apes,”
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 9
(1985): 653–665, p. 653.

3
. Savage-Rumbaugh et al., “Spontaneous Symbol Acquisition,” 223–224.

4
. Darwin,
Descent of Man
, 54.

5
. Savage-Rumbaugh et al., “Spontaneous Symbol Acquisition,” 214.

1
. Patricia Marks Greenfield and E. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, “Grammatical Combinations in
Pan paniscus:
Processes of
Learning and Invention in the Evolution and Development of Language,” in
“Language” and Intelligence in Monkeys and Apes: Comparative Developmental Perspectives
, eds. Sue T. Parker and Kathleen Gibson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 545.

2
. Ibid., 541.

3
. Ibid., 571.

4
. Herbert Terrace, cited in “Clever Kanzi,”
U.S. News & World Report
, 5 November 1990, 68.

5
. Thomas Sebeok, “Chimp Appears to Have Toddler’s Grasp of English,
Indianapolis Sun, 7
April 1991.

6
. Noam Chomsky, “Clever Kanzi,”
Discover
, March 1991, 20.

7
. Elizabeth Bates, Commentary in “Language Comprehension in Ape and Child,” ed. E. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh,
Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development
, 58, nos. 3–4 (1993), University of Chicago Press, 222–242, p. 240.

8
. “Language Comprehension,” ed. Savage-Rumbaugh, 79–80.

9
. Bates, Foreword to “Language Comprehension,” ed. Savage-Rumbaugh, 240.

1
. Duane M. Rumbaugh, Interview with authors, 5 February 1993.

2
. Duane M. Rumbaugh et al., “The LANA Project: Origin and Tactics,” in
Language Learning by a Chimpanzee
, ed. Duane M. Rumbaugh (New York: Academic Press, 1977), 87–90, p. 88.

3
. D. Guess et al., “Children with Limited Language,” in
Language Intervention Strategies
, ed. R. L. Schiefelbusch (Baltimore: University Park Press, 1978), 101–143, p. 105.

4
. Rumbaugh, Interview with authors.

5
. Mary Ann Romski
et al.
“Establishment of Symbolic Communication in Persons with Severe Retardation,”
Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders
53 (1988): 94–107, p. 94.

6
. Ibid., 94.

7
. Mary Ann Romski, cited in Michael Richter, “The Origins of Language,”
Profile
, September 1984, 1–5, p. 5.

8
. Romski et al., “Establishment of Symbolic Communication,” 103–104.

9
. Rose Sevcik, cited in Richter, “Origins of Language,” 5.

10
. Adele A. Abrahamsen et al., “Concomitants of Success in
Acquiring an Augmentative Communication
System,” American Journal on Mental Retardation
, 93, no. 5 (1989): 475–496, p. 489.

11
. Rumbaugh, Interview with authors.

12
. Mary Ann Romski and E. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, “Implications for Language Intervention Research: A Nonhuman Primate Model,” pp. 355–374, in Savage-Rumbaugh,
Ape Language
, 358.

13
. Mary Ann Romski, Interview with authors, 4 February 1993.

14
. Rose Sevcik, Interview with authors, 5 February 1993.

15
. Ibid.

16
. Mary Ann Romski and Rose A. Sevcik, “Language Learning through Augmented Means,” pp. 85–104, in
Enhancing Children’s Communication: Research Foundations for Intervention
, eds. Ann P. Kaiser and David B. Gray (Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks, 1993), 90.

17
. Ibid., 91–92.

18
. Sevcik, Interview with authors.

19
. Romski and Sevcik, “Language Learning,” 94.

20
. Duane M. Rumbaugh, Interview with authors, 5 February 1993.

1
. Kenneth P. Oakley,
Man the Tool-Maker
, 6th ed. (London: British Museum [Natural History], 1972), 3.

2
. Darwin,
Descent of Man
, 144.

3
. Sherwood Washburn and C. S. Lancaster, “The Evolution of Hunting,” pp. 293–303, in
Man the Hunter
, eds. Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore (Chicago: Aldine, 1968), 293.

4
. Thomas Wynn and William C. McGrew, “An Ape’s View of the Oldowan,”
Man (N.S.)
, 24 (1989): 383–398, p. 383.

5
. Nicholas Toth, “The First Technology,”
Scientific American
255, no. 4 (April 1987): 112–121, p. 117.

6
. Wynn and McGrew, “Ape’s View of the Oldowan,” 387.

7
. Ibid., 388.

8
. Ibid., 389.

9
. Ibid., 394.

10
. Nicholas Toth, Interview with authors, 15 May 1993.

11
. Ibid.

12
.
Ibid.

13
. Adapted from Nicholas Toth et al., “Pan the Tool-Maker: Investigations into the Stone Tool-Making and Tool Using Capabilities of a Bonobo (
Pan paniscus),” Journal of Archeological Science
20 (1993): 81–91, p. 89.

14
. Nicholas Toth, “Archeological Evidence for Preferential Right-Handedness in the Lower Pleistocene, and Its Possible Implications,”
Journal of Human Evolution
14 (1985): 607–614, p. 612.

15
. Toth, “The First Technology,” 117.

16
. Toth, Interview with authors.

17
. Toth et al., “Pan the Tool-Maker,” 89.

18
. Toth, Interview with authors.

1
. Dean Falk, Commentary to a paper,
Current Anthropology
30, 141–142, p. 142.

2
. Terrence W. Deacon, “Brain-Language Coevolution,” pp. 1–35, in
The Evolution of Human Languages
, eds. J. A. Hawkins and Murray Gell-Mann (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1990), 4.

3
. Edmund S. Crelin,
The Human Vocal Tract: Anatomy, Function, Development, and Evolution
(New York: Vantage Press, 1987), 87.

4
. Patricia Marks Greenfield, “Language, Tools, and Brain,” (Paper for Wenner-Gren conference, “Tools, Language, and Intelligence,” 16–24 March, Cascais, Portugal), 28, 30.

5
. Glynn L. Isaac, “Stages of Cultural Elaboration in the Pleistocene,” in
Origins and Evolution of Language and Speech, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
280 (1976): 275–288, p. 283.

6
. Wynn and McGrew, “Ape’s View of the Oldowan,” 394.

7
. Nicholas Toth and Kathy Schick, “Early Stone Industries and Inferences Regarding Language and Cognition,” pp. 346–362, in
Tools, Language, and Cognition
, eds. Gibson and Ingold, 350.

8
. Ibid., 351.

9
. Thomas Wynn, “Two Developments in the Mind of Early
Homo,” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology
, in press.

10
. Ibid.

11
.
Iain Davidson and William Noble, “Tools and Language in Human Evolution,” pp. 363–388, in
Tools, Language, and Cognition
, eds. Gibson and Ingold, 363.

12
. Iain Davidson, Interview with authors, 13 April 1993.

13
. Davidson and Noble, “Tools and Language,” 367.

14
. Davidson, Interview with authors.

15
. Toth, Interview with authors.

16
. Iain Davidson and William Noble, “The Archaeology of Depiction,”
Current Anthropology
30 (1989): 125–155, p. 132.

17
. Ibid., 134.

18
. Charles Darwin,
The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex
, 2d. ed. (London: John Murray, 1874), 66.

1
. Cartmill, “Human Uniqueness,” 187.

2
. Mary Midgely,
Animals and Why They Matter
(Atlanta: University of Georgia Press, 1985), 56.

3
. Andrew Whiten and Richard W. Byrne, cited in Roger Lewin, “Do Animals Read Minds?”
Science
238 (1987): 1350–1351, p. 1350.

4
. Richard W. Byrne and Andrew Whiten, “The Thinking Primate’s Guide to Deception,”
New Scientist
, 3 December 1987, 54–57, p. 54.

5
. Dorothy Cheney and Robert Seyfarth,
How Monkeys See the World
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 214.

6
. Robert Seyfarth and Dorothy Cheney, “Inside the Mind of a Monkey,”
New Scientist
, 4 January 1992, 25–29, p. 29.

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