Killing Us Softly (28 page)

49
Pauling's early life: T. Goertzel and B. Goertzel,
Linus Pauling: A Life in Science and Politics
(New York: Basic Books, 1995), 1, 35; D. Newton,
Linus Pauling: Scientist and Advocate
(New York: Facts on File, 1994), 20, 35; T. Hager,
Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 50; C. Mead and T. Hager,
Linus Pauling: Scientist and Peacemaker
(Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, 2001), 79.

49
Pauling's work on chemical bonding: Goertzel and Goertzel,
Linus Pauling
, 77; Newton,
Linus Pauling
, 30–38; Hager,
Force of Nature
, 52–60, 157–62; B. Marinacci, ed.,
Linus Pauling in His Own Words: Selections from His Writings, Speeches, and Interviews
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 79–88.

49
Pauling's work on sickle-cell anemia: Hager,
Force of Nature
, 332–34; Hager,
Linus Pauling
, 87–89; Newton,
Linus Pauling
, 69; Goertzel and Goertzel,
Linus Pauling
, 90.

50
Pauling and the alpha helix: Goertzel and Goertzel,
Linus Pauling
, 91–94; Mead
and Hager,
Linus Pauling
, 14.

50
Pauling and evolutionary biology: Hager,
Force of Nature
, 540–46; Mead and Hager,
Linus Pauling
, 169–76; Hager,
Linus Pauling
, 119–20; M. F. Perutz, “Linus Pauling: 1901–1994,”
Structural Biology
1 (1994): 667–71.

50
Pauling's activism for world peace: Mead and Hager,
Linus Pauling
, 13–17; Serafini,
Linus Pauling
, 186–90; Newton,
Linus Pauling
, 59–83; Goertzel and Goertzel,
Linus Pauling
, 143–47; Marinacci,
Linus Pauling
, 184.

51
Pauling's awards and honors: Serafini,
Linus Pauling
, xxii; Mead and Hager,
Linus Pauling
, 16, 18; Newton,
Linus Pauling
, 69, 109; Goertzel and Goertzel,
Linus Pauling
, 111.

51
Pauling as “classic tragedy”: Goertzel and Goertzel,
Linus Pauling
, xvi.

51
Pauling meets Stone: Marinacci,
Linus Pauling
, 246.

52
Stone's credentials: Barrett and Jarvis,
Health Robbers
, 386.

52
Linus Pauling takes vitamin C: Marinacci,
Linus Pauling
, 246.

52
Pauling predicts end of the common cold: L. Pauling,
Vitamin C and the Common Cold
(San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1970), 6.

53
Popularity of vitamins in the United Kingdom: C. Eberhardie, “Nutritional Supplements and the EU: Is Anyone Happy?”
Proceedings of the Nutrition Society
66 (2007): 508–511.

53
Impact of
Vitamin C and the Common Cold
: Hager,
Linus Pauling
, 126; Hager,
Force of Nature
, 583.

53
Minnesota study: Goertzel and Goertzel,
Linus Pauling
, 203.

53
Maryland study: Hager,
Force of Nature
, 582.

53
Toronto study: S. Barrett,
Health Schemes, Scams, and Frauds
(Mount Vernon, N.Y.: Consumer Reports Books, 1990), 57.

53
Netherlands study: Hurley,
Natural Causes
, 172.

53
Fifteen studies of vitamin C don't support Pauling's claims: S. Barrett, W. London, R. Bartz, and M. Kroger, eds.,
Consumer Health: A Guide to Intelligent Decisions
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007), 246.

53
Public health associations don't support Pauling's claims: Hager,
Linus Pauling
, 126; Goertzel and Goertzel,
Linus Pauling
, 203; Hurley,
Natural Causes
, 165–66; Hager,
Force of Nature
, 578.

54
Pauling and allergies: Goertzel and Goertzel,
Linus Pauling
, 201.

54
Ewan Cameron and Glasgow study: Hager,
Force of Nature
, 583–86; Newton,
Linus Pauling
, 105–6.

54
Cameron and Pauling study rejected by academy journal: Hager,
Force of Nature
, 585–86.

54
Criticism of Cameron and Pauling study: Barrett and Jarvis,
Health Robbers
, 386.

55
Pauling claims 75 percent success rate: Newton,
Linus Pauling
, 106.

55
Pauling claims Americans will live longer: Pauling,
Live Longer
, 243.

55
Maris and Nobel Prize: John Maris, interviewed by the author, September 28, 2011.

55
Moertel's first study: E. T. Creagan, C. G. Moertel, J. R. O'Fallon, et al., “Failure of High-Dose Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) Therapy to Benefit Patients with Advanced Cancer: A Controlled Trial,”
New England Journal of Medicine
301 (1979): 687–90.

55
Moertel bullied to perform second study: Goertzel and Goertzel,
Linus Pauling
, 215.

56
Moertel's second study: C. G. Moertel, T. R. Fleming, E. T. Creagon, et al., “High-Dose Vitamin C Versus Placebo in the Treatment of Patients with Advanced Cancer Who Have Had No Prior Chemotherapy: A Randomized Double-Blind Comparison,”
New England Journal of Medicine
312 (1985): 137–41.

56
Cameron regarding Pauling's anger: Goertzel and Goertzel,
Linus Pauling
, 216–17.

56
Pauling attacks Moertel's second study: Ibid.

56
Pauling considers suing Moertel: Ibid.

56
Continued lack of evidence supporting vitamin C as a cure for cancer: G. van Poppel and H. van den Berg, “Vitamins and Cancer,”
Cancer Letters
114 (1997): 195–202; S. J. Padayatty, A. Katz, Y. Wang, et al., “Vitamin C as an Antioxidant: Evaluation of Its Role in Disease Prevention,”
Journal of the American College of Nutrition
22 (2003): 18–35.

56
Pauling recommends high doses of several vitamins: Barrett et al.,
Consumer Health
, 246.

56
Pauling claims vitamins as cure-all: Goertzel and Goertzel,
Linus Pauling
, 204; I. Stone,
The Healing Factor: Vitamin C Against Disease
(New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1972), ix-x.

57
Pauling claims vitamin C treats AIDS: Young,
American Health Quackery
, 260.

57
Time
article: A. Toufexis, J. M. Horowitz, E. Lafferty, and D. Thompson, “The New Scoop on Vitamins,”
Time
, April 6, 1992.

57
NNFA regarding impact of
Time
article: Barrett,
Vitamin Pushers
, 369–70.

57
Toufexis regarding impact of
Time
article: Ibid., 370.

58
Finnish antioxidant study: Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group, “The Effect of Vitamin E and Beta-Carotene on
the Incidence of Lung Cancer and Other Cancers in Male Smokers,”
New England Journal of Medicine
330 (1994): 1029–35.

59
Asbestos exposure antioxidant study: G. E. Goodman, M. D. Thornquist, J. Balmes, et al., “The Beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial,”
Journal of the National Cancer Institute
96 (2004): 1743–50.

59
2004 antioxidant study: G. Bjelakovic, D. Nikolova, R. G. Simonetti, et al., “Antioxidant Supplements for Prevention of Gastrointestinal Cancers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,”
Lancet
364 (2005): 37–46 (italics mine).

59
Review of nineteen antioxidant studies: E. R. Miller III, R. Pastor-Barriuso, D. Dalal, et al., “Meta-Analysis: High-Dosage Vitamin E Supplementation May Increase All-Cause Mortality,”
Annals of Internal Medicine
142 (2005): 37–46.

59
Caballero on antioxidant studies: G. Kolata, “Large Doses of Vitamin E May Be Harmful,”
New York Times
, November 11, 2004.

60
JAMA
antioxidant study: E. Lonn, J. Bosch, S. Yusuf, et al., “Effects of Long-Term Vitamin E Supplementation on Cardiovascular Events and Cancer,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
293 (2005): 1338–47.

60
Antioxidant study of prostate cancer: K. A. Lawson, M. E. Wright, A. Subar, et al., “Multivitamin Use and Risk of Prostate Cancer in the National Institutes of Health—AARP Diet and Health Study,”
Journal of the National Cancer Institute
99 (2007) 754–64.

60
Cochrane review of antioxidant studies: G. Bjelakovic, D. Nikolova, L. L. Gluud, et al., “Antioxidant Supplements for Prevention of Mortality in Healthy Participants and Patients with Various Diseases,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3 (2012): 2. Art. no. CD007176, DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD007176.pub2.

60
Minnesota supplement study: J. Mursu, K. Robien, L. J. Harnack, et al., “Dietary Supplements and Mortality Rate in Older Women: The Iowa Women's Health Study,”
Archives of Internal Medicine
171 (2011): 1625–33; E. Brown, “Dietary Supplements Risk for Older Women, Study Finds,”
Los Angeles Times
, October 10, 2011; J. C. Dooren, “Supplements Offer Risks, Little Benefit, Study Says,”
Wall Street Journal
, October 11, 2011.

60
Cleveland Clinic Study and
Wall Street Journal
headline: E. A. Klein, I. M. Thompson Jr., C. M. Tangen, et al., “Vitamin E and the Risk of Prostate Cancer: The Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT),”
Journal of the American Medical Association
306 (2011): 1549–56;
S. S. Wang, “Is This the End of Popping Vitamins?”
Wall Street Journal
, October 25, 2011.

61
Fortunato quote: S. S. Wang, “Is This the End of Popping Vitamins?”
Wall Street Journal
, October 25, 2011.

61
“The antioxidant paradox”: B. Halliwell, “The Antioxidant Paradox,”
Lancet
355 (2000): 1179–80.

61
Pauling's interview at Oregon State University: Serafini,
Linus Pauling
, 263.

C
HAPTER 3:
T
HE
S
UPPLEMENT
I
NDUSTRY
G
ETS A
F
REE
P
ASS

65
Medical huckster: A. Anderson,
Snake Oil, Hustlers and Hambones: The American Medicine Show
(Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Company, 2000), 1.

66
List of patent medicines: Hurley,
Natural Causes
, 30–31.

66
$75 million business: Ibid.

66
Harvey Wiley: Young,
Toadstool Millionaires
, 226–44.

67
Samuel Adams and “The Great American Fraud”: Young,
Toadstool
, 205–25.

67
Coca-Cola: J. Schwarcz,
Science, Sense and Nonsense: 61 Nourishing, Healthy, Bunk-Free Commentaries on the Chemistry That Affects Us All
(Scarborough, Ontario: Doubleday Canada, 2009), 193.

68
Wiley's proposed legislation: Ibid., 226.

68
Proprietary Association of America: Ibid.

68
Upton Sinclair and
The Jungle
: U. Sinclair,
The Jungle
(New York: Bantam Books, 1906).

69
The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906: Young,
Toadstool
, 226–44.

70
Elixir Sulfanilamide: E. M. K. Geiling, and P. R. Cannon, “Pathologic Effects of Elixir of Sulfanilamide (Diethylene Glycol) Poisoning,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
111 (1938): 919–26; P. N. Leech, “Elixir of Sulfanilamide-Massengill,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
109 (1937): 1531–39; R. Steinbrook, “Testing Medications in Children,”
New England Journal of Medicine
347 (2002): 1462–70; P. M. Wax, “Elixirs, Diluents, and the Passage of the 1938 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act,”
Annals of Internal Medicine
122 (1995): 456–61; “Fatal Elixir Seized as Adulterated,”
New York Times
, October 30,
1937; “‘Death Drug' Hunt Covered 15 States,”
New York Times
, November 26, 1937.

71
The Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act of 1938: Barrett et al.,
Consumer Health
, 535–37; Anderson,
Snake Oil
, 158–59; Hurley,
Natural Causes
, 35; Barrett and Herbert,
Vitamin Pushers
, 74; Young,
Health Quackery
, 269; V. Herbert, and S. Barrett,
Vitamins and “Health” Foods: The Great American Hustle
(Philadelphia: George F. Stickley Company, 1981), 149.

71
Thalidomide disaster: Barrett et al.,
Consumer Health
, 535–37; Singh and Ernst,
Trick or Treatment
, 273.

72
Kefauver-Harris Amendment: Barrett et al.,
Consumer Health
, 535–37; Hurley,
Natural Causes
, 36.

73
FDA's attempt to regulate vitamins: Ibid., 47–53.

73
NHF founders and agenda: Barrett and Jarvis,
Health Robbers
, 398–408; E. Juhne,
Quacks and Crusaders: The Fabulous Careers of John Brinkley, Norman Baker, & Harry Hoxsey
(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002), 150.

75
Proxmire Amendment: Hurley,
Natural Causes
, 47–53.

77
Hutt regarding FDA's mistake: P. B. Hutt, “U. S. Government Regulation of Food with Claims for Special Physiological Value,” in M. K. Schmidt and T. P. Lapuza,
Essentials of Functional Foods
(New York: Springer, 2000).

77
Hurley regarding Proxmire Amendment: Hurley,
Natural Causes
, 53.