Madison's Music (35 page)

26
.
Johnson v. Governor
, 405 F.3d 1214 (11th Cir. 2005), en banc, reinstating district court dismissal, cert. denied,
Johnson v. Bush
, 564 U.S. 1015 (2005).

27
.
United Jewish Organizations of Williamsburg v. Carey,
430 U.S. 144 (1977).

28
.
Shaw v. Reno
, 509 U.S. 630 (1993);
Shaw v. Hunt
, 517 U.S. 899 (1996).

29
. Lest you think such a 10:1 disparity is unrealistic, the United States Senate functions under a 72:1 disparity between senators from California, who represent more than 38 million voters, and senators from Montana, who represent about 570,000 voters.

30
.
Davis v. Bandemer
, 478 U.S. 109 (1986).

31
.
Vieth v. Jubilirer
, 541 U.S. 267 (2004);
LULAC v. Perry
, 548 U.S. 399 (2006).

32
.
Terry v. Adams
, 345 U.S. 461 (1953).

33
.
Tashjian v. Republican Party
, 479 U.S. 208 (1986).

34
.
Rosario v. Rockefeller
, 410 U.S. 752 (1973).

35
.
Kusper v. Pontikes
, 414 U.S. 51 (1973).

36
.
American Party of Texas v. White
, 415 U.S. 767 (1974).

37
.
California Democratic Party v. Jones
, 530 U.S. 567 (2000).

38
.
Washington State Grange v. Washington State Republican Party
, 552 U.S. 442 (2008).

39
.
New York State Board of Elections v. Lopez-Torres
, 552 U.S. 196 (2008).

40
.
Clingman v. Beaver
, 544 U.S. 581 (2005).

41
.
Williams v. Rhodes
, 393 U.S. 23 (1968).

42
.
Munro v. Socialist Worker Party
, 479 U.S. 189 (1986);
Storer v. Brown
, 415 U.S. 724 (1974);
Jessess v. Fortson
, 403 U.S. 431 (1971).

43
.
Timmons v. Twin Cities Area New Party
, 520 U.S. 351 (1997).

44
.
Burdick v. Takushi
, 504 U.S. 428 (1992).

45
.
McCutcheon v. FEC
, 134 S. Ct. 1434 (2014).

46
. Finally,
Buckley
upheld disclosure rules requiring most campaign contributions to be made public, although Congress has left huge loopholes in the disclosure process, and state disclosure rules are often either nonexistent or toothless.

47
.
Buckley v. Valeo
, 424 U.S. 1 (1976).

48
.
United States v. O'Brien
, 391 U.S. 367 (1968).

49
.
Caperton v. A. T. Massey Coal Co.
, 556 U.S. 868 (2009).

50
.
Citizens United v. FEC
, 558 U.S. 310 (2010).

51
. 531 U.S. 98 (2000), per curiam. The safe-harbor provision emerged from the turbulent Hayes-Tilden presidential election of 1876, in which Tilden won an absolute majority of the popular vote, but lost by 185–184 in the Electoral College after a series of fiercely partisan congressional challenges favored 20 contested Hayes electors from Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Oregon.

52
.
Crawford v. Marion County
, 553 U.S. 181 (2008).

53
.
Hale v. Henkel
, 201 U.S. 43, 74–75 (1906).

54
.
Braswell v. United States
, 487 U.S. 99 (1988).

55
. In fairness, Justice Kennedy argues that hearers would be benefited by granting First Amendment protection to for-profit corporations, while no such third-party benefit is available in the self-incrimination cases. But if
Citizens United
rests on the alleged benefits of unlimited corporate electioneering, surely Justice Kennedy was obliged to confront the fact that the voter/hearers had overwhelmingly voted to be free from corporate political speech.

56
.
Virginia Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council
, 425 U.S. 748 (1976);
Central Hudson Gas v. Public Service Comm'n
, 447 U.S. 557 (1980).

57
.
FEC v. Massachusetts Citizens for Life,
479 U.S. 238 (1986).

6. The Democracy-Friendly First Amendment in Action

1
.
Anderson v. Cellebreze
, 460 U.S. 780 (1983).

2
.
Poe v. Ullman
, 367 U.S. 497, 523 (1961), J. Harlan dissenting;
Griswold v. Connecticut
, 381 U.S. 479 (1965).

3
.
Roe v. Wade
, 410 U.S. 113 (1973).

4
.
Moore v. East Cleveland
, 431 U.S. 494 (1977).

5
.
Lawrence v. Texas
, 539 U.S. 558 (2003).

6
.
Loving v. Virginia
, 388 U.S. 1 (1967);
Zablocki v. Redhail
, 434 U.S. 374 (1978).

7
. The American Political Science Association deems a district contestable if the gap in pre-election party voter registration is less than 55 percent to 45 percent. Districts with a pre-election gap greater than 60 percent to 40 percent are designated landslide districts.

8
.
Borough of Duryea v. Guarnieri
, 131 S. Ct. 2488 (2011).

9
. The debate over “instruction” is described briefly in Chapter 10.

7. Mr. Madison's Neighborhood

1
.
West Virginia State Bd. of Education v. Barnette
, 319 U.S. 624 (1943) (banning compulsory flag salutes);
Cohen v. California
, 403 U.S. 15 (1971) (“Fuck the
draft” protected speech);
Texas v. Johnson
, 491 U.S. 397 (1989);
United States v. Eichman
, 496 U.S. 310 (1990) (burning flags protected).

2
. Galileo was excommunicated and placed under house arrest for challenging the Church's commitment to Ptolemaic astronomy, which viewed the earth as the center of the universe. See Maurice A. Finnochiario,
The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). John Milton's
Areopagitica: A Plea for Unlicensed Printing
(1644), one of the landmarks in the evolution of free-speech theory, was almost certainly influenced by the young Milton's visit to Galileo during Galileo's house arrest. See William Riley Parker,
Milton: A Biography
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1996).

3
.
RAV v. City of St. Paul
, 505 U.S. 377 (1992);
Wisconsin v. Mitchell
, 508 U.S. 476 (1993).

4
.
Virginia v. Black
, 538 U.S. 343 (2003).

5
.
National Socialist Party v. Skokie
, 432 U.S. 43 (1977).

6
.
Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire
, 315 U.S. 568 (1942). In the years since
Chaplinsky
, the Supreme Court has never sustained a conviction for using “fighting words.” The case may well be a dead precedent.

7
.
Kovacs v. Cooper
, 336 U.S. 77 (1949);
Ward v. Rock Against Racism
, 491 U.S. 781 (1989).

8
.
Burson v. Freeman
, 504 U.S. 191 (1992).
Burson
is a rare example of the government winning a strict-scrutiny case.

9
.
Florida Bar v. Went for It, Inc.
, 515 U.S. 618 (1995).

10
.
Rowan v. United States Post Office
, 397 U.S. 728 (1970).

11
.
Frisby v. Schultz
, 487 U.S. 474 (1988).

12
.
Hill v. Colorado
, 530 U.S. 703 (2000).

13
.
McCullen v. Coakley
, 12-1168, transcript of oral argument, 29, 32, 44.

14
.
Lamont v. Postmaster General
, 381 U.S. 301 (1965).

15
. See
Pell v. Procunier
, 417 U.S. 817 (1974) and
Saxbe v. Washington Post
, 417 U.S. 843 (1974), rejecting an investigatory role for the press.

16
.
Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC
, 512 U.S. 622 (1994);
Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC
, 520 U.S. 180 (1997).

17
.
New York Times v. Sullivan
, 376 U.S. 254 (1964).

18
. Frederick Schauer is one of the leading proponents of the cautionary approach to government censorship. Frederick Schauer,
Free Speech: A Philosophical Enquiry
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982).

19
.
United States v. Alvarez
, 132 S. Ct. 2537 (2012).

20
.
Snyder v. Phelps
, 131 S. Ct. 1207 (2011).

21
.
Brown v. Entertainment Merchants' Ass'n
, 131 S. Ct. 2729 (2011).

22
.
United States v. Stevens
, 559 U.S. 460 (2010).

23
. Geoffrey R. Stone,
Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime from the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terror
(New York: W.W. Norton, 2004).

24
. See
Dennis v. United States
, 341 U.S. 494 (1951), upholding criminal convictions of Communist Party leaders. See generally, Ellen Schrecker,
The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History with Documents
(Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2002); Ellen Schrecker,
Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1998).

25
. For the bad-tendency test in action, see
Whitney v. California
, 274 U.S. 357 (1927);
Gitlow v. New York
, 268 U.S. 652 (1925);
Abrams v. New York
, 250 U.S. 616 (1919);
Debs v. United States
, 249 U.S. 211 (1919);
Frohwerk v. New York
, 249 U.S. 204 (1919);
Schenck v. United States
, 249 U.S. 47 (1919). The most notorious use of the bad-tendency test in modern times took place in
Dennis v. United States
, 341 U.S. 494 (1951), when the Court upheld the conviction of the leaders of the American Communist Party for the crime of being leaders of the American Communist Party. Although the Supreme Court used the language of clear and present danger, it deferred to Congress's assessment of the imminence of the danger posed by a political party pledged to violent revolution at some indefinite time in the future, reducing the judicial role to that of a bystander. Many read
Brandenburg v. Ohio
, 395 U.S. 444 (1969), per curiam, as overruling
Dennis
.

26
. See e.g.,
Tinker v. Des Moines School Board
, 393 U.S. 503 (1969), cannot punish student for wearing black armband to class to protest Vietnam War in absence of showing strong likelihood that would disrupt class;
Edwards v. South Carolina
, 372 U.S. 229 (1963);
Cox v. Louisiana
, 379 U.S. 536 (1965) (
Cox
I);
Cox v. Louisiana
, 379 U.S 559 (1965) (
Cox
II), reversing convictions of civil rights marchers.

27
.
Brandenburg v. Ohio
, 395 U.S. 444 (1969), per curiam.

28
.
Cohen v. California
, 403 U.S. 15 (1971).

29
. For a description of the conservative intellectual renaissance, see George H. Nash,
The Conservative Intellectual Movement in America Since 1945
, 2d ed. (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2006); Jeffrey Hart,
The Making of the American Conservative Mind: The
National Review
and Its Times
(Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2007).

30
. See, for example, Robert Nozik,
Anarchy, State, and Utopia
(New York: Basic Books, 1974).

31
. I am, of course, referring to the short period of virtually unanimous political support for President James Monroe from 1816 to 1820.

32
.
Texas v. Johnson
, 491 U.S. 397 (1989);
United States v. Eichman
, 496 U.S. 310 (1990). Justice Brennan wrote for the Court in both cases. The dissenters were Chief Justice Rehnquist and Justices White, Stevens, and O'Connor. Justice Scalia was the swing vote.

33
.
Buckley v. Valeo
, 424 U.S. 1 (1976), per curiam. The fragmented series of per curiam and individual opinions in
Buckley
usually shake out to 7–1, with Chief Justice Burger dissenting and Justice Stevens not participating.

34
.
Virginia Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council
, 425 U.S. 748 (1976). Justice Blackmun wrote for seven justices, including Brennan and Marshall. Chief Justice Burger wrote a concurrence. Justice Rehnquist was the lone dissenter. Justice Stevens did not participate. The commercial-speech doctrine received its fullest articulation several years later in
Central Hudson Gas & Elec. Corp. v. Public Service Commission of New York
, 447 U.S. 557 (1980). The eight justices who voted to invalidate a ban on promotional messages by electric companies found it very difficult to identify exactly what falls under commercial speech, proffering four different tests. Chief Justice Rehnquist continued to dissent from the grant of broad First Amendment power to corporations.

35
.
First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti
, 435 U.S. 765 (1978).