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12.
Edwards,
The Communards
, pp. 62–3; Sutter-Laumann,
Histoire d’un trente sous
(1891), p. 225.

13.
Gullickson,
Unruly Women
, pp. 35–6; Stewart Edwards, ed.,
The Communards
, pp. 63–5.

14.
Gullickson,
Unruly Women
, p. 43; Tombs,
The War Against Paris
, pp. 46–7.

15.
Edwards,
The Paris Commune
, pp. 137–42.

16.
Jacques Rougerie,
La Commune de 1871
(1988), p. 53; Rials,
Nouvelle histoire
, pp. 255–6; Clifford, ‘Aux armes citoyens!’, pp. 145–63; Eugène Varlin,
Pratique militante et écrits d’un ouvrier communard
, ed. Paule Lejeune (1977), p. 155; Benoît Malon,
La Troisième défaite du prolétariat français
(Neuchâtel, 1871), p. 74; Michel, Bullitt and Gunter,
The Red Virgin
, pp. 64–5.

17.
Adolphe Thiers,
Déposition de M. Thiers sur le dix-huit mars
(1871), pp. 33–3; Quentin Deluermoz,
Policiers dans la Ville: La Construction d’un ordre public à Paris 1854–1914
(2012), pp. 141–4, 154–5; Edwards,
The Paris Commune
, pp. 148–50; Philippe Riviale,
Sur la Commune: Cerises de sang
(2003), p. 194.

18.
Jean-François Lecaillon, ed.,
La Commune de Paris racontée par les Parisiens
(2009), pp. 38–9; Johnson,
The Paradise of Association
, p. 6.

19.
George J. Becker, ed.,
Paris Under Siege, 1870–71: From the Goncourt Journal
(Ithaca, NY, 1969), pp. 228–37.

20.
Ernest A. Vizetelly,
My Adventures in the Commune
(n.p., 2009 [1914]), p. 36; Lecaillon,
La Commune de Paris
, p. 37.

21.
Christiane Demeulenaere-Douyère, ‘Un témoin de la Commune de Paris: Eugène Bersier’,
Bulletin de la Société d’histoire de Paris et de l’Ile de France
108e (1981), p. 247; J. Rocher, ed.,
Lettres de communards et de militants de la Première International à Marx, Engels et autres dans les journées de la Commune de Paris en 1871
(1934), 29 March; Lecaillon,
La Commune de Paris
, pp. 39–41.

22.
Paul Vignon,
Rien que ce que j’ai vu! Le siège de Paris – la Commune
(1913), pp. 87–92.

23.
Serman,
La Commune de Paris
, pp. 214–15; Riviale,
Sur la Commune
, pp. 219–20; Alistair Horne,
The Fall of Paris: The Siege and the Commune 1870–71
(New York, 1965), p. 347.

24.
Jacques Rougerie,
Paris libre 1871
(1971), p. 114; Edwards,
The Paris Commune
, p. 151.

25.
Maurice Dommanget,
Blanqui, Guerre de 1870–71 et la Commune
(1947), p. 114; Marcel Cerf,
Édouard Moreau, l’âme du Comité central de la Commune
(1971), p. 11; Edwards,
The Paris Commune
, p. 213.

26.
Jacques Rougerie, ‘Autour de quelques livres étrangers’, in Claude Latta, ed.,
La Commune de 1871: L’événement les hommes et la mémoire
(Saint-Etienne, 2004), p. 58; Claude Latta, ‘Benoît Malon pendant la Commune’, in ibid., pp. 112–13; Jacques Rougerie,
Procès des Communards
(1964), pp. 142–3; Horne,
The Fall of Paris
, p. 359; Edwards,
The Paris Commune
, p. 155.

27.
Malon,
La troisième défaite
, pp. 93–8; Gaston Da Costa,
Mémoires d’un Communard: la Commune vécue
(2009), pp. 91–8; Edwards,
The Paris Commune
, pp. 162–4. Louis M. Greenberg,
Sisters of Liberty: Marseille, Lyon, Paris and the Reaction to a Centralised State, 1868–1871
(Cambridge, MA, 1971) seriously underestimates the essential economic and social dimensions of the Commune.

28.
Bernard Accoyer, ed.,
De l’Empire à la République: les comités secrets au Parlement, 1870–1871
(2011), pp. 54–63, 201, 205, 221, 229; Édouard Lockroy,
La Commune et l’Assemblée
(1871), pp. 26–9, 38.

29.
Serman,
La Commune de Paris
, p. 371; Jean Dubois,
À travers les oeuvres des écrivains, les revues et les journaux: Vocabulaire politique et social en France de 1869 à 1872
(1962), pp. 136, 163, 179–80; Adolphe Thiers,
Histoire de la Révolution du 4 septembre et de l’insurrection du 18 mars
(1875), p. 156.

30.
Malon,
La troisième défaite
, p. 99; Élie Reclus,
La Commune de Paris au jour le jour
(2001), p. 30; Gaston Cerfbeer, ‘Une nuit de la semaine sanglante’,
Revue Hebdomadaire
25 (23 May 1903), p. 416.

31.
Reclus,
La Commune de Paris
, pp. 143–7.

32.
Rougerie,
Paris libre 187
, pp. 128–30, 140; Peter McPhee,
A Social History of France 1780–1880
(New York, 1992), p. 214; Jeanne Gaillard,
Communes de province, commune de Paris 1870–1871
(1971), p. 34; Latta, ‘Benoit Malon’, p. 114; Eichner,
Surmounting the Barricades
, p. 30; David Barry,
Women and Political Insurgency: France in the Mid-Nineteenth Century
(Basingstoke, 1996), pp. 108–11.

33.
J.P.T. Bury and R.P. Tombs,
Thiers – A Political Life
(London, 1986), p. 200.

34.
Philip Nord, ‘The Party of Conciliation and the Paris Commune.’
French Historical Studies
15:1 (1987), pp. 5, 9–12.

35.
Rougerie,
Procès des Communards
, pp. 147–51.

36.
Sébastien Commissaire,
Mémoires et souvenirs
, vol. 2 (1888), pp. 369–70; Jean Dautry and Lucien Scheler,
Le comité central républicain des vingt arrondissements de Paris (septembre 1870–mai 1871), d’après les papiers inédits de Constant Martin et les sources imprimées
(1960), pp. 236–8.

37.
Edwards,
The Communards
, pp. 69–71, and
The Paris Commune 1871
, p. 173; Johnson,
The Paradise of Association
, p. 21. There were probably about 1,000 members of the International in Paris.

38.
Reclus,
La Commune de Paris
, pp. 82–3; Paul Reclus,
Les frères Élie et Élisée Reclus
(1964), pp. 161–81, 188; Rougerie,
Procès des Commuards
, pp. 217–22; Edwards,
The
Paris Commune
, pp. 11–14; see Eugene Schulkind, ‘The Activity of Popular Organizations During the Paris Commune of 1871’,
French Historical Studies
4 (1960), p. 408.

39.
Louis Barron,
Sous la drapeau rouge
(1889), p. 2.

40.
Rials,
Nouvelle histoire
, pp. 283–9; Luc Willette,
Raoul Rigault: 25 ans, communard, chef de la police
(1984), pp. 93–4.

41.
Rials,
Nouvelle histoire
, pp. 303–7; Willette,
Raoul Rigault
, pp. 100–1; Alain Dalotel,
Gabriel Ranvier, le Christ de Belleville: Blanquiste, Franc-maçon, Communard et Maire du XXe arrondissement
(2005), pp. 29–44; Maxime Jourdan,
Le cri de peuple
(2005), pp. 63–74, esp. 22 February.

42.
Johnson,
The Paradise of Association
, pp. 6, 93–108; Clifford, ‘Aux armes citoyens!’, p. 188; Tombs,
The Paris Commune
, p. 7.

43.
R.D. Price, ‘Ideology and Motivation in the Paris Commune of 1871’,
Historical Journal
15 (1972), p. 76; Edwards,
The Communards
, pp. 78–9; Camille Pelletan,
Questions d’histoire: Le Comité central et la Commune
(1879), p. 51; Jules Andrieu, ‘The Paris Commune: A Chapter Towards its Theory and History’,
Fortnightly
10 (new series, November 1871), p. 597.

44.
Jourdan,
Le cri du peuple
, p. 107 (30 March); Prosper-Olivier Lissagaray,
History of the Paris Commune of 1871
(New York, 1976), p. 128; Edwards,
The Paris Commune
, p. 186.

45.
Da Costa,
Mémoires d’un Communard
, p. 109; Georges Bourgin,
La Commune de Paris
(1971), pp. 31–2, 40; Rials,
Nouvelle histoire
, pp. 320–2; Malon,
La troisième défaite
, p. 130. A by-election took place on 16 April to replace the thirty-one men who had resigned, been elected from several
arrondissements
, been killed in early fighting, or, as in the case of Blanqui, were in prison. These elections, which had a low turnout, increased the number of radicals in the Commune (Laure Godineau,
La Commune de Paris par ceux qui l’ont vécue
(2010), pp. 45–51).

46.
Varlin,
Pratique militant
, p. 164; Adolphe Thiers,
Notes et souvenirs de M. Thiers 1870–1873
(1903), p. 145; Rougerie,
La Commune de 1871
, p. 72.

47.
Riviale,
Sur la Commune
, p. 217; Paul Lidsky,
Les écrivains contre la Commune
(1970), p. 69; Johnson,
The Paradise of Association
, pp. 224; Edwards,
The Paris Commune
, pp. 190–1; Clifford, ‘Aux armes citoyens!’, p. 164; Laure Godineau,
La Commune de Paris par ceux qui l’ont vécue
(2010), p. 82; Maxime Vuillaume,
Mes Cahiers rouges au temps de la Commune
(1971), pp. 286–92.

48.
Robert Tombs,
The Paris Commune 1871
(London, 1997), pp. 80–3.

49.
Rougerie,
Procès des Communards
, pp. 160–1, 241. Rougerie insists that these two conceptions of the Commune were not necessarily always contradictory, and that the influence of Proudhon on the Commune has been exaggerated. From 20 April, the Executive Commission consisted of the delegates of the nine commissions as elected.

50.
Reclus,
La Commune de Paris
, pp. 235–6; Varlin,
Pratique militante
, pp. 169–70.

51.
Wickham Hoffman,
Camp, Court, and Siege: A Narrative of Personal Adventure and Observation during Two Wars, 1861–1865, 1870–71
(New York, 1877), p. 252; Rials,
Nouvelle histoire
, p. 345; Rougerie,
Paris libre 1871
, p. 187; Rocher,
Lettres de Communards
; E. Tersen, ‘Léo Frankel,
Europe, revue mensuelle
, 29:64–5 (April–May, 1951), pp. 157–8.

52.
Bury and Tombs,
Thiers
, p. 203. The other challenges were to prevent Bismarck and the newly unified German empire from taking advantage of the provisional government’s difficult situation. The third was to maintain support in the provinces, particularly in major centres of republicanism such as Lyon and Marseille. See Louis M. Greenberg,
Sisters of Liberty: Marseille, Lyon, Paris and the Reaction to a Centralised State, 1868–1871
(Cambridge, MA, 1971).

53.
Godineau,
La Commune de Paris
, p. 178.

54.
William Serman,
Les officiers français dans la nation
(1982), pp. 15–18, 54; William Serman,
Les origines des officiers français 1848–1870
(1979), pp. 4–6.

55.
Tombs,
The War Against Paris
, pp. 100–23; Simon,
The Government of M. Thiers
, p. 290; Riviale,
Sur la Commune
, p. 236.

56.
Jacques Silvestre de Sacy,
Le Maréchal de Mac-Mahon
(1960), p. 255; Tombs,
The War Against Paris
, pp. 91, 96–100; Gabriel de Broglie,
Mac-Mahon
(2000), p. 175.

57.
Tombs,
The War Against Paris
, pp. 126–7.

58.
Clifford, ‘Aux armes citoyens!’, pp. 106–7; Rougerie,
Procès des Communards
, pp. 256–70.

59.
8J conseil de guerre 3 dossier 571, Gustave Cluseret, order of 16 April, court-martial session 17 April; Vizetelly,
My Adventures
, p. 54; Rials,
Nouvelle histoire
, pp. 326–7, 459; Jules Bourelly (Général),
Le ministère de la Guerre sous la Commune
(n.d), p. 84; Clifford, ‘Aux armes citoyens!’, pp. 197–8.

60.
8J conseil de guerre 3 dossier 571, Gustave Cluseret, orders 16, 21 and 23 April; Da Costa,
Mémoires d’un Communard
, pp. 203–8; Vizetelly,
My Adventures
, pp. 117, 132; Rials,
Nouvelle histoire
, pp. 326–7, 199–218; Pascal Chambon, ‘1871, la fin de la Garde nationale’, in Claude Latta, ed.,
La Commune de 1871
(Saint-Etienne, 2004), pp. 81–3. Prosper-Olivier Lissagaray estimated the number at 100,000 men for active duty and another 103,500 for ‘sedentary’ activity, including manning the ramparts and the 200 available cannons.

61.
John Leighton,
Paris Under the Commune
(London, 1871), p. 208.

62.
Bury and Tombs,
Thiers
, p. 203; Thiers,
Déposition
, p. 53; Thiers,
Notes et souvenirs
, pp. 162–5.

63.
Louis Thomas,
Le Général de Gallifet (1830–1909)
(1941), p. 92; Albert de Mun (Count), ‘Galliffet’,
Écho de Paris
, 10 July 1909; Tombs,
The War Against Paris
, p. 79; Simon,
The Government
, p. 363; Edwards,
The Paris Commune
, pp. 192–4. In the wake of the first encounter, Rossel found himself arrested and in prison for one night, reasons for which are not clear.

64.
Edwards,
The Paris Commune
, p. 196; Tombs,
The War Against Paris
, p. 79; A. Balland,
La Guerre de 1870 et la Commune
(Bourg-en-Bresse, 1916), pp. 151–2.

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