Modern Mind: An Intellectual History of the 20th Century (166 page)

51.
For the popularity of ‘saltation’ see David Kahn (editor),
The Darwinian Heritage,
Princeton: Princeton University Press in association with Nova Pacifica, 1985, pages 762–763.

52.
Tattersall,
Op. cit.,
pages 89–94.

53.
Ibid.,
page 95.

54.
Walter Moore,
Schrödinger: Life and Thought,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, page 395.

55.
Erwin Schrödinger,
What is Life?,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1944, page 77.

56.
Moore,
Op. cit.,
page 396.

57.
Schrödinger,
Op. cit.,
page 61.

58.
Ibid.,
page 79.

59.
Ibid.,
page 30.

60.
Moore,
Op. cit.,
page 397.

1.
Karl Mannheim, Diagnosis of Our Time: Wartime Essays of a Sociologist, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1943.

2.
Ibid.,
page 38.

3.
Ibid.,
page 32.

4.
Ibid.,
pages 60ff.

5.
Joseph Schumpeter,
Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy,
London: George Allen & Unwin, 1943.

6.
Johnston, The Austrian Mind, Op. cit., page 83.

7.
Robert Heilbronner,
The Worldly Philosophers,
New York: Simon & Schuster, 1953, Penguin Books, 1986, pages 292–293.

8.
Schumpeter,
Op. cit.,
pages 111ff.

9.
Ibid.,
page 81.

10.
Ibid.,
pages 143ff; Heilbronner,
Op. cit.,
pages 6 and 301–302.

11.
Heilbronner, Op.
cit.,
pages 300–303.

12.
Friedrich von Hayek,
The Road to Serfdom,
London: George Routledge, 1944, page 52.

13.
Ibid.,
page 61.

14.
C. H. Waddington,
The Scientific Attitude,
London (another Penguin Special), 1941.

15.
Karl Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies, Volume I: The Spell of Plato, Volume II: The High Tide of Prophecy: Hegel, Marx and the Aftermath, London: George Routledge & Sons, 1945.

16.
Popper had problems publishing
The Open Society,
which some publishers felt too irreverent towards Aristotle; and the journal
Mind
turned down
The Poverty of Historicism.
See Mannheim’s autobiograhy,
Unended Quest: An Intellectual Biography,
London: Routledge, 1992, page 119.

17.
Roberta Corvi,
An Introduction to the Thought of Karl Popper,
London and New York: Routledge, 1997, page 52.

18.
Ibid.,
page 55.

19.
Ibid.
, page 59.

20.
Popper, Op.
cit., volume I,
page 143. Corvi, Op.
cit.,
page 65.

21.
Ibid., volume II, page 218.

22.
Corvi, Op.
cit.,
page 69.

23.
See Popper, Op.
cit., volume II,
chapter 14, on the autonomy of sociology, and chapter 23, on the sociology of knowledge.

24.
Corvi, Op.
cit.,
page 73.

25.
William Temple,
Christianity and the Social Order,
London: Penguin Special, 1942.

26.
Ibid.,
chapter 2 on church ‘interference’.

27.
Ibid.,
page 75.

28.
Ibid.,
pages 76ff.

29.
Ibid.,
page 79.

30.
Ibid.,
page 87.

31.
Nicholas Timmins,
The Five Giants: A Biography of the Welfare State,
London: HarperCollins, 1995, Fontana Paperback, 1996, page 23. See also: Derek Fraser,
The Evolution of the British Welfare State,
London: Macmillan, 1973, page 199, which says the report sold 635,000 copies.

32.
John Kenneth Galbraith,
A History of Economics,
London: Hamish Hamilton, 1987, Penguin edition, 1991, pages 213–215.

33.
For the effects of war on attitudes, see: Fraser, Op.
cit.,
pages 194–195.

34.
Timmins, Op.
cit.,
page 11. There is no mention of this, of course, in Beveridge’s memoirs: Lord Beveridge,
Power and Influence,
London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1953.

35.
Beveridge, Op.
cit.,
page 9; quoted in Timmins, Op.
cit.,
page 12. See also: José Harris,
William Beveridge: A Biography,
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977, page 44.

36.
Paul Addison,
Churchill on the Home Front 1900—
1955, London: Jonathan Cape, 1992, page 51; quoted in Timmins, Op.
cit.,
page 13.

37.
Harris, Op.
cit.,
pages 54 and 379. Timmins,
Op. cit.,
page 14.

38.
Timmins, Op.
cit.,
page 15.

39.
Ibid.,
page 20.

40.
Ibid.
See also: Harris, Op.
cit.,
page 385.

41.
Timmins,
Op. cit.,
page 21, though according to Harris, Op.
cit.,
page 390, he did not begin to think about insurance until the end of 1941.

42.
Fritz Grunder, ‘Beveridge meets Bismark,’ York papers, volume 1, page 69, quoted in Timmins, Op.
cit.
, page 25.

43.
Ibid.,
pages 23–24.

44.
Cmnd. 6404,
Social Insurance and Allied Services: Report by Sir William Beveridge,
London: HMSO, 1942, pages 6–7, quoted in Timmins, Op.
cit.,
pages 23–24.

45.
And, indeed, many officials were cautious. Harris, Op.
cit.,
page 422.

46.
Timmins, Op.
cit.,
page 29.

47.
Derek Fraser,
Op. cit.,
page 180, quoted in Timmins, Op.
cit.,
page 33.

48.
Ibid.,
page 37.

49.
In his memoirs, Beveridge refers to an American commentator who said: ‘Sir William, possibly next to Mr Churchill, is the most popular figure in Britain today.’ Beveridge, Op.
cit.,
page 319

50.
Allan Bullock, Hitler and Stalin, Op. cit., page 858.

51.
Crick, George Orwell, Op. cit., page 316.

52.
Malcolm Bradbury, Introduction to George Orwell,
Animal Farm,
Penguin Books, 1989, page vi.

53.
Crick, Op.
cit.,
pages 316–318, adds that paper shortage may not have been the only reason for delay.

54.
Galbraith, A History of Economics, Op. cit., page 248.

55.
Lekachman,
Op. cit.,
page 128.

56.
Moggridge, Op.
cit.,
page 629.

57.
Lekachman,
Op. cit.,
page 124.

58.
Moggridge, Op.
cit.,
page 631.

59.
Lekachman,
Op. cit.,
page 127.

60.
Ibid.,
page 131.

61.
The New Republic,
‘Charter for America,’ 19 April 1943, quoted in Lekachman, Op.
cit.,
pages ‘33–135. See also Galbraith,
Op. cit.,
page 249.

62.
Lekachman,
Op. cit.,
page 150.

63.
Ibid.,
page 152.

64.
Moggridge, Op.
cit.,
page 724. Lekachman, Op.
cit.,
page 158.

65.
Lekachman,
Op. cit.,
page 152.

66.
White had prepared his own proposal on an International Bank. Moggridge, Op.
cit.,
page 724.

67.
Ibid.,
pages 802–803.

68.
Keynes himself was more worried about Britain’s overseas spending, which he felt did not match her reduced means.
Ibid.,
page 825.

69.
Lekachman,
Op. cit.,
page 138.

70.
Ibid.,
page 161.

71.
Gunnar Myrdal,
An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy
(two vols), New York: Harper & Row, 1944.

72.
Ivan Hannaford, Race: The History of an Idea in the West,
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, page 378.

73.
E. Franklin Frazier,
The Negro Family in the United States,
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939.

74.
Myrdal,
Op. cit.,
page xlvii.

75.
Hannaford, Op.
cit.,
page 379.

76.
See Myrdal, Op.
cit.,
chapter 34, on leaders.

77.
Paul Johnson,
A History of the American People,
London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997, page 794. Hannaford, Op.
cit.,
page 395.

78.
Ralph Ellison,
Shallow and Act,
New York: Random House, 1964, page 316.

1.
Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, Op. cit., page 319.

2.
Ibid.,
page 321.

3.
See R. W. Clark,
The Birth of the Bomb,
London: Phoenix House, 1961, page 116, for an erroneous claim that Frisch’s house was hit by a bomb and set ablaze.

4.
For more details about Peierls’ calculations, see Clark,
The Birth of the Bomb, Op. cit.,
page 118; also Rhodes,
Op. cit.,
page 323.

5.
Tizard’s committee, extraordinarily, was the only body in wartime Britain capable of assessing the military uses of scientific discoveries. Clark, Op.
cit.,
page 55.

6.
Robert Jungk,
Brighter than a Thousand Suns,
London: Victor Gollancz in association with Rupert Hart-Davis, 1958, page 67.

7.
Rhodes,
Op. cit.,
page 212.

8.
Fermi was known to other physicists as ‘the Pope.’ Jungk, Op.
cit.,
page 57.

9.
Laura Fermi,
Atoms in the Family,
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954, page 123. Also quoted in Rhodes, Op.
cit.,
page 249.

10.
C. P. Snow,
The Physicists, Op. cit.,
pages 90–91.

11.
Otto Hahn,
New Atoms,
New York and Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1950, pages 53ff.

12.
Rhodes, Op.
cit.,
pages 254–256.

13.
Jungk, Op.
cit.,
pages
(67–77.

14.
Helge Kragh, Quantum Generations, Op. cit., page 260.

15.
Ronald Clark,
The Greatest Power on Earth: The Story of Nuclear Fission,
London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1980, page 45. See also: Jungk, Op.
cit.,
page 77. Rhodes, Op.
cit.,
page 258.

16.
Rhodes,
Op. cit.,
page 261.

17.
Szilard suggested secrecy but didn’t find many supporters. Kragh, Op.
cit.,
page 263.

18.
Clark, The Birth of the Bomb, Op. cit., page 80.

19.
See Jungk, Op.
cit.,
pages 82ff for Szilard’s other initiatives.

20.
Ibid.,
page 91 also says that the possibility of a chain reaction had not occurred to Einstein.

21.
Rhodes,
Op. cit.,
pages 291–292 and 296.

22.
See Clark,
The Birth of the Bomb, Op. cit.,
page 183, which says that Canada was also considered as an entirely British alternative. See also: Rhodes, Op. cit., pages 329–330.

23.
Kragh,
Op. cit.,
page 265; and Rhodes,
Op. cit.,
page 379.

24.
Rhodes,
Op. cit.,
page 385.

25.
Mark Walker,
German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pages 222ff, argues that the significance of this meeting has been exaggerated on both sides. The meeting became the subject of a successful play,
Copenhagen,
by Michael Frayn, first performed by the National Theatre in London in 1998, and on Broadway in New York in 2000.

26.
Kragh, Op.
cit.,
page 266; Rhodes, Op.
cit.,
page 389.

27.
Leslie Groves, ‘The atomic general answers his critics’,
Saturday Evening Post,
19 May, 1948, page 15; see also Jungk, Op.
cit.,
page 122.

28.
Rhodes,
Op. cit.,
pages 450–451.

29.
Clark, The Greatest Power on Earth, Op. cit., page 161.

30.
Rhodes, Op.
cit.,
page 437.

31.
Jane Wilson (editor), ‘All in Our Time’,
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,
1975, quoted in Rhodes,
Op. cit.,
page 440.

32.
See Kragh, Op.
cit.,
page 267, for its internal organisation.

33.
Rhodes, Op.
cit.,
pages 492 and 496–500.

34.
Kragh, Op.
cit.,
page 270.

35.
Stefan Rozental (editor),
Niels Bohr, Op. cit.,
page 192.

36.
Margaret Gowing,
Britain and Atomic Energy, 1939–1945,
London: Macmillan, 1964, pages 354–356. See also: Rhodes, Op.
cit.,
pages 482 and 529.

37.
See Clark,
The Birth of the Bomb, Op. cit.,
page 141, for the way the British watched the Germans.

38.
On the German preference for heavy water, see Mark Walker, Op.
cit.,
page 27.