Muhammad (20 page)

There is nothing surprising about this lack of unity. In the gospels, Jesus’s disciples are often presented as obtuse and blind to the deeper aspect of his mission. Paradigmatic figures are usually so far ahead of their time that their contemporaries fail to understand them, and, after their deaths, the movement splinters—as Buddhism divided into Hinayana and Mahayana schools not long after the death of Siddhatta Gotama. In Islam, too, the divisions that had split the ummah during the Prophet’s lifetime became even clearer after his death. Many of the Bedouin, who had never fully comprehended the religious message of the Qur’an, believed that Islam had died with Muhammad and felt free to secede from the ummah in the same way as they would renege on any treaty with a deceased chieftain. After the Prophet’s death, the community was lead by his
kalifa,
his “successor.” The first four caliphs were elected by the people: Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, ‘Uthman and ‘Ali, known as the “rightly guided” (
rashidun
) caliphs.They led wars of conquest outside Arabia, but at the time these had no religious significance. Like any statesmen or generals, the rashidun were responding to a political opportunity—the disintegration of the Persian and Byzantine empires—rather than a Qur’anic imperative. The terrible civil wars that resulted in the assassinations of ‘Umar, ‘Uthman, ‘Ali and Husayn, the Prophet’s grandson, were later given a religious significance but were simply a by-product of an extraordinarily accelerated transition from a peripheral, primitive polity to the status of a major world power.

Far more surprising than this political turbulence was the Muslims’ response. Their understanding of the Qur’an matured when they considered these disastrous events. Nearly every single major religious and literary development in Islam has had its origin in a desire to return to the original vision of the Prophet. Many were appalled by the lavish lifestyle of later caliphs, and tried to return to the austere vision of the early ummah. Mystics, theologians, historians, and jurists asked important questions. How could a society that killed its devout leaders claim to be guided by God? What kind of man should lead the ummah? Could rulers who lived in such luxury and condoned the poverty of the vast majority of the people be true Muslims?

These intense debates about the political leadership of the ummah played a role in Islam that was similar to the great Christological debates of the fourth and fifth centuries in Christianity. The ascetic spirituality of Sufism had its roots in this discontent. Sufis turned their back on the luxury of the court, and tried to live as austerely as the Prophet; they developed a mysticism modelled on his night journey and ascension to heaven. The Shi‘ah, the self-styled “party of ‘Ali”, Muhammad’s closest male relative, believed that the ummah must be led by one of ‘Ali’s direct descendants, since they alone had inherited the Prophet’s charisma. Shiis developed a piety of protest against the injustice of mainstream Muslim society and tried to return to the egalitarian spirit of the Qur’an. Yet while these and many other movements looked back to the towering figure of Muhammad, they all took the Qur’anic vision into entirely new directions, and showed that the original revelations had the flexibility to respond to unprecedented circumstances that is essential to any great world movement. From the very start, Muslims used their Prophet as a yardstick by which to challenge their politicians and to measure the spiritual health of the ummah.

This critical spirit is needed today. Some Muslim thinkers regard the jihad against Mecca as the climax of Muhammad’s career and fail to note that he eventually abjured warfare and adopted a nonviolent policy. Western critics also persist in viewing the Prophet of Islam as a man of war, and fail to see that from the very first he was opposed to the jahili arrogance and egotism that not only fuelled the aggression of his time but is much in evidence in some leaders, Western and Muslim alike, today. The Prophet, whose aim was peace and practical compassion, is becoming a symbol of division and strife—a development that is not only tragic but also dangerous to the stability on which the future of our species depends.

At the end of my first attempt to write a biography of Muhammad, I quoted the prescient words of the Canadian scholar Wilfred Cantwell Smith. Writing in the mid-twentieth century shortly before the Suez Crisis, he observed that a healthy, functioning Islam had for centuries helped Muslims cultivate decent values which we in the West share, because they spring from a common tradition. Some Muslims have problems with Western modernity. They have turned against the cultures of the People of the Book, and have even begun to Islamize their new hatred of these sister faiths, which were so powerfully endorsed by the Qur’an. Cantwell Smith argued that if they are to meet the challenge of the day, Muslims must learn to understand our Western traditions and institutions, because they are not going to disappear. If Islamic societies did not do this, he maintained, they would fail the test of the twentieth century. But he pointed out that Western people also have a problem: “an inability to recognize that they share the planet not with inferiors but with equals.”

Unless Western civilization intellectually and socially, politically and economically, and the Christian church theologically, can learn to treat other men with fundamental respect, these two in their turn will have failed to come to terms with the actualities of the twentieth century. The problems raised in this are, of course, as profound as anything that we have touched on for Islam.
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The brief history of the twenty-first century shows that neither side has mastered these lessons. If we are to avoid catastrophe, the Muslim and Western worlds must learn not merely to tolerate but to appreciate one another. A good place to start is with the figure of Muhammad: a complex man, who resists facile, ideologically-driven categorization, who sometimes did things that were difficult or impossible for us to accept, but who had profound genius and founded a religion and cultural tradition that was not based on the sword but whose name—“Islam”—signified peace and reconciliation.

Glossary

Terms

‘abd
Slave

ahl al-beit
People of the household. Muhammad’s immediate family.

ahl al-kitab
People of the Book. Usually Jews and Christians.

Allahu akhbar
“God is greater.” A phrase that reminds Muslims of the transcendence and supremacy of God.

al-Rahim
The Merciful. One of the names of God.

al-Rahman
The Compassionate. One of the names of God.

Ansar
The Helpers. The Medinese Muslims.

‘asibiyyah
Tribal solidarity.

ayah
(Plural:
ayat
) Sign, parable, symbol, a verse of the Qur’an.

badawah
Nomadic; hence Bedouin.

banat Allah
Daughters of Allah. See
gharaniq.

dahr
Time, fate.

dhikr
Reminder, remembrance.

din
Religion, way of life, moral law, reckoning.

fatah
Literally “opening.” Victory.

gharaniq
The three goddesses Al-Lat, Al-Uzza, and Manat. “Daughters of Allah,” who were compared to beautiful “cranes”.

ghazu
Acquisition raid, essential to the Bedouin economy.
Ghazi:
Warrior, raider, man of war.

hadarah
Settled life—as opposed to
badawah.

hadith
(plural:
ahadith
) Report, a maxim or saying attributed to the Prophet.

hajj
The pilgrimage to Mecca.
Hajji:
pilgrim.

hakam
Arbitrator. Muhammad’s political role in Medina.

hanif
Originally a pre-Islamic monotheist. In the Qur’an, the word refers to a person who followed the
hanifiyyah,
the pure religion of Abraham, before this split into rival sects.

haram
Sacred; forbidden—hence “sanctuary,” especially the sanctuary surrounding the Kabah where all violence was prohibited.

hasab
Ancestral honor; the particular virtues of a tribe that tribes-men had inherited from their forefathers.

hijab
Curtain, veil, a covering for something precious or sacred.

hijrah
Migration, especially the Muslims’ migrations to Medina.

hilm
A traditional Arab virtue which became central to Islam: forbearance, patience, mercy, tranquillity.

islam
Surrender, submission, the name eventually applied to the religion of the Qur’an.

‘isra
A night journey, especially that of Muhammad to Jerusalem.

istighna’
Haughty self-reliance, aggressive independence and self-sufficiency.

jahiliyyah
Traditionally translated “Time of Ignorance,” and used to apply to the pre-Islamic period in Arabia, but in the Muslim sources its primary meaning is violent and explosive irascibility, arrogance, tribal chauvinism.

jahim
An obscure word, usually translated “raging fire.” Hell.

jihad
Struggle, effort, endeavour.

jilbab
A garment, cloak, or covering.

jinni
(plural:
jinn
) “Unseen being,” usually one of the sprites who haunted the Arabian desert, inspired poets, and led people astray; also stranger, a person hitherto “unseen.”

Kabah
Literally, cube. The granite shrine in the Haram, dedicated to Allah.

kafir
(Plural:
kafirun
) Traditionally translated “unbeliever.” More accurately it refers to somebody who ungratefully and aggressively rejects Allah and refuses to acknowledge his dependence on the Creator.

kalifa
The successor of Muhammad, the caliph.

karim
Generous hero; the Bedouin ideal.

kufr
Ingratitude; insolence.

kunya
Honorary title assumed by a man after the birth of his first son; e.g. Abu Bakr, the father of Bakr.

layla
Night; also, a woman’s name.

layla al-qadr
Night of destiny; the night when Muhammad received the first revelation from God.

masjid
A place for prostration; later, mosque.

mirbad
A place for drying dates.

mu’min
Those who faithfully live up to the Muslim ideal.

munafiq
(Plural:
munafiqun
) Waverer; hypocrite; the term applied to an uncommitted Muslim who followed Ibn Ubbay.

muruwah
The chivalric code of the Bedouin, comprising loyalty to the tribe, courage, endurance, generosity, and reverence for the tribal ancestors.

muslim
A person who has surrendered his or her entire being to God; who has made the act of
islam.

nadhir
A messenger who brings a warning to his people.

nasr
Help, including military support.

qiblah
The direction of prayer.

Qur’an
“Recitation.” The scripture that was revealed to Muhammad by God.

rashidun
The “rightly guided” ones; the first four caliphs.

ruh
Spirit. In the Qur’an, the divine spirit of revelation.

sakinah
The spirit of peace and serenity.

salam
Peace; often used by Muslims as a greeting.

salat
The ritual worship performed five times a day by Muslims.

salihat
The works of justice prescribed by the Qur’an.

saraya
A wife with slave status, but whose children are free.

sayyid
Chief of a clan or tribe.

shahadah
The Muslim declaration of faith: “I bear witness that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is his prophet.”

shari‘ah
Originally, the path to the watering hole. The lifeline of a nomadic tribe; later applied to the body of Muslim law.

shaytan
A “satan.” A tempter who could be a human being or one of the
jinn
, who leads people astray and inspires facile, empty desires.

shirk
Idolatry, associating other beings with God, putting other deities or purely human values on the same level as Allah. The cardinal Muslim sin.

sunnah
A path, a way of life.

suq
Market, trade fair.

surah
A chapter of the Qur’an.

taqarrush
Acquisition, gaining. Perhaps the origin of “Quraysh.”

taqwa’
Mindfulness; an attitude of sensitivity to and consciousness of God.

tawaf
The seven ritual circumambulations around the Kabah.

tawhid
“Making one”, the unity of God, realized in the integration of the human person.

tazakka
Purification, refinement. An early name for the religion of Islam.

ummah
Community.

umrah
The Lesser Pilgrimage. The rites of the
hajj
that were performed within the city of Mecca, excluding those performed in the surrounding countryside.

yawm ad-din
Day of reckoning; moment of truth.

zakat
Literally “purification” Alms; a charitable donation to the needy. One of the essential practices of Islam.

zalim
Outsider; a person who is abhorred because he does not belong to the tribe.

Places

‘Abd Shams The neighborhood of the Qurayshan clan of ‘Abd Shams in Mecca.

‘Aqabah The gully outside Mecca where Muhammad first met with pilgrims from Yathrib.

‘Arafat A mountain sixteen miles east of Mecca; one of the stations of the
hajj,
where pilgrims made an all-night vigil.

Badr A watering hole on the Red Sea coast, where the Muslims achieved their first victory over the Meccan army.

Hijaz A region in the northern Arabian steppes.

Hira’ A mountain outside Mecca, where Muhammad received the first revelation in about 610.

Hudaybiyyah A well within the confines of the Meccan sanctuary, where Muhammad made a peace treaty with the Quraysh in 628.

Khaybar An agricultural settlement of Jewish tribes, north of Medina.

Marwah A hill to the east of the Kabah; during the
hajj,
pilgrims would run seven times between Marwah and Safe.

Mecca The commercial city ruled by the Quraysh; the birthplace of Muhammad.

Medina The name given by the Muslims to the settlement of Yathrib; the city of the Prophet.

Mina A valley about five miles east of Mecca; one of the stations of the
hajj.

Mu’tah A town near the Syrian border, where the Muslim army suffered a severe military defeat.

Muzdalifah One of the stations of the
hajj;
a valley between Mina and ‘Arafat, thought originally to have been the home of the thunder god.

Nakhlah An oasis to the south-east of Mecca, where the goddess Al-Uzzah had her shrine and sanctuary.

Qudhayd A city on the Red Sea coast, where the goddess Manat had her shrine and sanctuary.

Safa A hill to the east of the Kabah; during the
hajj,
pilgrims would run between Safa and Marwah.

Sana’a A city in southern Arabia; now the capital of Yemen.

Ta’if An agricultural colony to the south-east of Mecca; the site of the sanctuary of the goddess Al-Lat and home of the tribe of Thaqif. Ta’if supplied Mecca with most of its food, and many of the Quraysh had summer homes there.

Uhud A mountain to the north of Medina; the Meccans inflicted a severe defeat over the Muslim army on the adjoining plain.

‘Ukaz The site of one of the great trade fairs, where a poetry contest was held each year.

Yathrib An agricultural settlement, some 250 miles north of Mecca, populated by Arabs and Jewish tribes. After the
hijrah,
it became known as Medina, the city of the Prophet.

Zamzam The sacred spring in the Meccan Haram.

People

‘Abdullah ibn Ubayy A chief of the Khazraj clan in Medina, who led the opposition to Muhammad.

‘Abdullah ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib The father of Muhammad, who died before he was born.

Abdullah ibn Jahsh The cousin of Muhammad; brother of his wife Zaynab, and Ubaydallah, the
hanif.

‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib The uncle of Muhammad.

‘Abd al-Muttalib Muhammad’s grandfather.

Abu l-‘As ar-Rabi The husband of Muhammad’s daughter, Zaynab, who resisted conversion to Islam for many years.

Abu Ja’rir at-Tabari Historian and biographer of Muhammad.

Abu l-Hakam ibn Hisham See Abu Jahl.

Abu Bakr A close and trusted friend of Muhammad; one of the first converts to Islam; the father of ‘A’isha, the beloved wife of the Prophet.

Abu Bara’ Chief of the Bedouin tribe of ‘Amir; Muhammad married his daughter Zaynab bint Khuzaymah after the battle of Uhud.

Abu Jahl “Father of Insolence,” the nickname given by the Muslims to Abu l-Hakam; the most virulent of Muhammad’s early opponents.

Abu Lahab ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib The half-brother of Abu Talib; an early opponent of Muhammad. After Abu Talib’s death, he became the chief of the clan of Hashim.

Abu Sufyan ibn Harb Chief of the Qurayshan clan of ‘Abd Shams; a leading opponent of Islam.

Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib Muhammad’s uncle, guardian, and protector. ‘A’isha bint Abi Bakr Daughter of Abu Bakr; Muhammad’s beloved young wife.

Al-Muttalib One of the Meccan clans, closely related to Hashim, Muhammad’s clan.

‘Ali ibn Abi Talib Abu Talib’s son; the ward of Muhammad and Khadijah. He married Fatimah, the Prophet’s daughter.

Aminah bint Wahb Muhammad’s mother; she died during his infancy.

Amir A Meccan clan.

‘Asad The Meccan clan to which Khadijah belonged.

Aslam A Bedouin tribe.

‘Amr ibn al-‘As A leading warrior in the Meccan army and an opponent of Islam.

Anas ibn Malik A friend of Muhammad; present when the Verses of the Hijab were revealed.

Aws One of the Arab tribes in Medina.

Bani Qaylah “The Sons of Qaylah.” The Arab tribe that migrated from southern Arabia to Yathrib during the sixth century and later split into the Aws and Khazraj.

Bara’ ibn Mar’ar A chief of Khazraj; the patron of Muhammad during the Pledge of War (622).

Bilal An Abyssinian slave who converted to Islam; he became the first
muezzin
to call the Muslims to prayer.

Budayl ibn Warqa Chief of the Bedouin tribe of Khuza’ah.

Fatimah bint Muhammad The youngest daugther of Muhammad and Khadijah; the wife of ‘Ali.

Gabriel The angel or spirit of the divine revelation.

Ghassan An Arab tribe on the Byzantine border that had converted to Christianity and become an ally of Byzantium.

Ghatafan A Bedouin tribe, based in the desert region east of Medina, allied to Ibn Ubayy and the opponents of Muhammad.

Hafsah bint ‘Umar The daughter of ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab; the wife of Muhammad; a special friend of ‘A’isha.

Hamzah ibn al-Muttalib One of Muhammad’s uncles; a warrior of prodigious strength, who converted to Islam and died at the battle of Uhud.

Hasan ibn ‘Ali The Prophet’s grandson, the older son of ‘Ali and Fatimah.

Hashim The Meccan clan to which Muhammad belonged.

Hind bint Abi Umayyah See Umm Salamah.

Hind bint ‘Utbah The wife of Abu Sufyan; an implacable enemy of Muhammad.

Hubal A god probably imported from the Nabatean region and venerated in Mecca; his stone effigy stood beside the Kabah.

Hulays ibn ‘Alaqamah Chief of the Bedouin tribe of al-Harith.

Husayn ibn ‘Ali The younger son of ‘Ali and Fatimah.

Huyay ibn Akhtab Chief of the Jewish tribe of Nadir.

Ibn Dughunnah A Bedouin chieftain confederated to the Quraysh; he became the protector of Abu Bakr.

Ibn Ishaq Muhammad ibn Ishaq; the first biographer of Muhammad.

Ibn Sa‘d Muhammad ibn Sa‘d; Muslim historian and biographer of the Prophet.

Ibn Ubayy See ‘Abdullah ibn Ubayy. ‘Ikrimah Son of Abu Jahl; one of the leaders of the Meccan opposition to Muhammad.

Ja’far ibn Abi Talib Cousin of Muhammad.

Jumah A Meccan clan of Quraysh.

Jurham A Bedouin tribe.