Plagues in World History (42 page)

13. Quinn,
Flu
, 59–83; K. David Patterson,
Pandemic Influenza, 1700–1900: A Study in Historical Epidemiology
(Totowa, N.J.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1986), 11–28.

14. Quinn,
Flu
, 85–121; Patterson,
Pandemic Influenza
, 29–82; Hays,
Epidemics and Pandemics
, 394.

15. Crosby’s original title was
Epidemic and Peace, 1918
(Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1976), subsequently issued in a second edition in 2003 as
America’s Forgotten Pandemic
with Cambridge University Press. Around this same time, a more popular, less historically rigorous account was published by Richard Collier,
The Plague of the Spanish Lady: The Influenza Pandemic of 1918–1919
(New York: Atheneum, 1974). Among the more notable of the recent narrative histories to appear are as follows: Gina Kolata,
Flu: The Story of the Great Influenza Pandemic of 1918 and the Search for the Virus that Caused It
(New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999); John M. Barry,
The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Deadliest Plague in History
(New York: Viking Penguin, 2004); Pettit and Bailie,
A Cruel Wind
.

16. Hays,
Epidemics and Pandemics
, 387, 389; Quinn,
Flu
, 151; I. D. Mills, “The 1918–1919 Influenza Pandemic: The Indian Experience,”
Indian Economic and Social History Review
23 (1986): 1–40.

17. Phillips and Killingray,
Spanish Influenza Pandemic
, 221–29.

18. Phillips and Killingray,
Spanish Influenza Pandemic
, 86–98.

19. Phillips and Killingray,
Spanish Influenza Pandemic
, 110–31, 156–72; Hays,
Epidemics and Pandemics
, 387, 391; Crosby,
America’s Forgotten Pandemic
, 227–63.

20. Pettit and Bailie,
A Cruel Wind
, 232–37; Phillips and Killingray,
Spanish Influenza Pandemic
, 39–46.

21. Mike Davis,
The Monster at Our Door: The Global Threat of Avian Flu
(New York: Owl Books, 2005), 50.

22. Quinn,
Flu
, 132–33, 156–59.

23. Felissa R. Lashley and Jerry D. Durham, eds.,
Emerging Infectious Diseases: Trends and Issues
, 2nd ed. (New York: Springer, 2007), 133–57, 185–96, 325–36.

206 y Notes to Pages 119–131

24. Crosby,
America’s Forgotten Pandemic
, 295–308; Quinn,
Flu
, 140.

25. Pettit and Bailie,
A Cruel Wind
, 62–64, 231–32; Barry,
The Great Influenza
, 91–97, 453–56.

26. Alfred Jay Bollet,
Plagues and Poxes: The Impact of Human History on Epidemic Disease
, 2nd ed. (New York: Demos, 2004), 105–11; Quinn,
Flu
, 126–31.

27. Phillips and Killingray,
Spanish Influenza Pandemic
, 73–85, 132–55, 173–201.

28. Hays,
Epidemics and Pandemics
, 387.

29. Quinn,
Flu
, 195–96.

30. Phillips and Killingray,
Spanish Influenza Pandemic
, 139–41; 202–17.

31. Phillips and Killingray,
Spanish Influenza Pandemic
, 49–69.

32. Quinn,
Flu
, 140–45; June E. Osborn, ed.,
History, Science and Politics: Influenza in America, 1918–1976
(New York: Prodist, 1977), 23.

33. Crosby,
America’s Forgotten Pandemic
, 319–23; Kolata,
Flu
, 53–54.

34. Quinn,
Flu
, 161–71; Kilbourne,
Influenza
, 16–19.

35. Kilbourne,
Influenza
, 326–27; Bollet,
Plagues and Poxes
, 113; Osborn,
History, Science and Politics
, 24; Martin A. Levin and Mary Bryna Sanger,
After the Cure: Managing AIDS

and Other Public Health Crises
(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000), 51–52.

36. Kilbourne,
Influenza
, 328–29; Bollet,
Plagues and Poxes
, 113–14; Osborn,
History, Science and Politics
, 25–51; Levin and Sanger,
After the Cure
, 52–55; Davis,
The Monster at Our Door
, 40–42.

37. Kilbourne,
Influenza
, 314–15, 329–31; Bollet,
Plagues and Poxes
, 115; Osborn, History, Science and Politics
, 63–64.

38. Kilbourne,
Influenza
, 331.

39. Osborn,
History, Science and Politics
, 66–70.

40. Davis,
The Monster at Our Door
, 43–44.

41. Kilbourne,
Influenza
, 329; Bollet,
Plagues and Poxes
, 115–16; Levin and Sanger, After the Cure
, 56–70.

42. www.who.int/csr/disease/avian_influenza.

43. Tambyah and Ping-Chung,
Bird Flu
, 7–8, 25–33, 64–66; Davis,
The Monster at Our Door
, 45–54; Quinn,
Flu
, 177–84.

44. Joseph Mercola and Pam Killeen,
The Great Bird Flu Hoax: The Truth They Don’t Want You to Know about the “Next Big Pandemic”
(Nashville: Nelson Books, 2006), 1–55, 99–123.

45. Quinn,
Flu
, 188–89, 203–4.

46. Quinn,
Flu
, 182–85; Mercola and Killeen,
The Great Bird Flu Hoax
, 4–6.

47. Davis,
The Monster at Our Door
, 97–114; Mercola and Killeen,
The Great Bird Flu Hoax
, 56–98.

48. Tambyah and Ping-Chung,
Bird Flu
, 140–42; Quinn,
Flu
, 189, 199–202.

49. Tambyah and Ping-Chung,
Bird Flu
, 99–118, 127–146; Quinn,
Flu
, 173–77, 185–87, 190–95; Mercola and Killeen,
The Great Bird Flu Hoax
, 158–94.

50. Most information on the 2009 flu pandemic is available on the websites of WHO, the CDC, and the European CDC: www.who.int/csr/disease/swineflu; www.cdc.gov/

H1N1FLU; www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/healthtopics/H1N1.

Notes to Pages 131–148 y 207

51. Richard Wenzel, “What We Learned from H1N1’s First Year,”
New York Times
, April 13, 2010.

52. Wenzel, “What We Learned.”

1. For a more detailed description of the biology of HIV, see I. Edward Alcamo, AIDS: The Biological Basis, 3rd ed. (Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett, 2003), 30–83; Hung Y. Fan, Ross F. Conner, and Luis P. Villarreal,
AIDS: Science and Society
, 5th ed.

(Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett, 2007), 17–54.

2. Alcamo,
AIDS
, 84–108; Fan, Conner, and Villarreal,
AIDS
, 67–84; James Chin, The AIDS Pandemic: The Collision of Epidemiology with Political Correctness (Oxford, UK: Radcliffe, 2007), 46–50.

3. Alcamo,
AIDS
, 120–34; Fan, Conner, and Villarreal,
AIDS
, 117–29; Chin,
The AIDS Pandemic
, 61–66; John Aberth,
The First Horseman: Disease in Human History (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2007), 119–20.

4. Alcamo,
AIDS
, 260–84; Jonathan Engel,
The Epidemic: A Global History of AIDS

(New York: HarperCollins, 2006), 63–66.

5. Alcamo,
AIDS
, 212–53; Fan, Conner, and Villarreal,
AIDS
, 84–92.

6. This theory was popularized by Edward Hooper’s book,
The River: A Journey to the Source of HIV and AIDS
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1999). Despite the fact that it has now been conclusively disproved, Hooper has yet to retract his theory.

7. Alcamo,
AIDS
, 13–18; Helen Epstein,
The Invisible Cure: Africa, the West, and the Fight against AIDS
(New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007), 39–48; John Iliffe,
The African AIDS Epidemic: A History
(Athens: Ohio University Press, 2006), 3–9; Jo N.

Hays,
Epidemics and Pandemics: Their Impacts on Human History
(Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC–CLIO, 2005), 446–47.

8. Alcamo,
AIDS
, 34, 73; Fan, Conner, and Villarreal,
AIDS
, 13–14; Chin,
The AIDS Pandemic
, 50–52.

9. Mirko D. Grmek,
History of AIDS: Emergence and Origin of a Modern Pandemic
, trans. R. C. Maulitz and J. Duffin (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990), 108–9; Iliffe,
The African AIDS Epidemic
, 6.

10. On the 1980s decade of AIDS in the United States, see Randy Shilts,
And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic
(New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1987); Engel,
The Epidemic
, 5–210; Martin A. Levin and Mary Bryna Sanger,
After the Cure: Managing AIDS and Other Public Health Crises
(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000), 119–40; Kenneth J. Doka,
AIDS, Fear, and Society: Challenging the Dreaded Disease
(Bristol, Pa.: Taylor and Francis, 1997), 61–81.

11. Michael Fumento,
The Myth of Heterosexual AIDS
(New York: Basic Books, 1991); Engel,
The Epidemic
, 197–201.

12. Most of the social, legal, and cultural issues surrounding AIDS in the United States and Europe are thoroughly vetted in the following works: Elizabeth Fee and Daniel M. Fox, eds.,
AIDS: The Burdens of History
(Berkeley: University of California 208 y Notes to Pages 149–154

Press, 1988); Peter Aggleton, Peter Davies, and Graham Hart, eds.,
AIDS: Individual, Cultural and Policy Dimensions
(Basingstoke, UK: Falmer Press, 1990); Douglas A.

Feldman, ed.,
Culture and AIDS
(New York: Praeger, 1990); Dorothy Nelkin, David P. Willis, and Scott V. Parris, eds.,
A Disease of Society: Cultural and Institutional Responses to AIDS
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Elizabeth Fee and Daniel M. Fox, eds.,
AIDS: The Making of a Chronic Disease
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Albert R. Jonsen and Jeff Stryker, eds.,
The Social Impact of AIDS in the United States
(Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1993); Virginia Berridge and Philip Strong, eds.,
AIDS and Contemporary History
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Brenda Almond, ed.,
AIDS: A Moral Issue—The Ethical, Legal and Social Aspects
, 2nd ed. (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996); Doka, AIDS, Fear, and Society
, esp. 99–114; Lawrence O. Gostin,
The AIDS Pandemic: Complacency, Injustice, and Unfulfilled Expectations
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004).

13. Engel,
The Epidemic
, 76–86, 189–92, 233–34, 276–78.

14. Engel,
The Epidemic
, 240–49, 267–75.

15. Statistics pulled from the website of www.avert.org/. However, readers should compare the 2007 statistics with those from www.unaids.org/.

16. Susan Hunter,
AIDS in America
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).

17. Statistics pulled from www.avert.org/.

18. The theory arose from an analysis of the DNA of descendents of the survivors of a plague in Eyam, England, in 1665, all of whom were found to have a genetic mutation in the chemokine receptor called “delta-32,” although it is not clear if this granted immunity to plague. See Irwin W. Sherman,
The Power of Plagues
(Washington, D.C.: ASM

Press, 2006), 97–99.

19. Engel,
The Epidemic
, 160–66, 282–87; Samuel V. Duh,
Blacks and AIDS: Causes and Origins
(Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1991); Jacob Levenson,
The Secret Epidemic: The Story of AIDS and Black America
(New York: Pantheon Books, 2004); Dooley Worth, “Minority Women and AIDS: Culture, Race, and Gender,” in
Culture and AIDS
, ed. D.

A. Feldman, 111–35 (New York: Praeger, 1990).

20. Engel,
The Epidemic
, 202–3; Jeanine M. Buzy and Helene D. Gayle, “The Epidemiology of HIV and AIDS in Women,” in
Women’s Experiences with HIV/AIDS: An International Perspective
, ed. L. D. Long and E. M. Ankrah, 181–204 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996); Hunter,
AIDS in America
, 69–85; Diane Richardson, “AIDS

Education and Women: Sexual and Reproductive Issues,” in
AIDS: Individual, Cultural and Policy Dimensions
, ed. P. Aggleton, P. Davies, and G. Hart, 169–79 (Basingstoke, UK: Falmer Press, 1990).

21. Engel,
The Epidemic
, 147–60; Hunter,
AIDS in America
, 133–47; Aggleton, Davies, and Hart,
AIDS
, 133–67; Anna Alexandrova, ed.,
AIDS, Drugs and Society
, rev. ed.

(New York: International Debate Education Association, 2004).

22. Benjamin Heim Shepard, “Shifting Priorities in US AIDS Policy,” in
The Global Politics of AIDS
, ed. P. G. Harris and P. D. Siplon, 171–99 (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2007); Gostin,
The AIDS Pandemic
, 185.

Notes to Pages 154–159 y 209

23. The monograph was prepared in 1985 as part of the briefing series for the American Management Association in New York.

24. Iliffe,
The African AIDS Epidemic
, 12.

25. Recent statistics were derived from the UNAIDS website, at www.unaids.org/.

Statistics from 2003 were derived from Aberth,
The First Horseman
, 129.

26. This issue is extensively explored in Marc Epprecht,
Heterosexual Africa? The History of an Idea from the Age of Exploration to the Age of AIDS
(Athens: Ohio University Press, 2008); and Neville Hoad,
African Intimacies: Race, Homosexuality, and Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007). However, the argument of the hidden African homosexual can be taken to extremes, as in William A. Rushing,
The AIDS

Epidemic: Social Dimensions of an Infectious Disease
(Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1995). The 2009 report from UNAIDS claims that “unprotected sex between men is probably a more important factor in sub-Saharan Africa’s HIV epidemics than is commonly thought” and that, “although common in sub-Saharan Africa, homosexual behavior is highly stigmatized in the region.” UNAIDS, at www.unaids.org/ (accessed February 6, 2010).