Pushout (33 page)

NOTES

Introduction

1
. Ashley Fantz, Holly Yan, and Catherine Shoichet, “Texas Pool Party Chaos: ‘Out of Control' Police Officer Resigns,”
CNN.com
, June 9, 2015.

2
. Kimberlé Crenshaw and Andrea Ritchie with Rachel Anspach, Rachel Gilmer, and Luke Harris,
Say Her Name: Resisting Police Brutality Against Black Women
(New York: African American Policy Forum and Columbia University Center for Intersectionality and Social Policy Studies, 2015).

3
. Eliott McLaughlin, “Tamir Rice's Teen Sister ‘Tackled,' Handcuffed After His Shooting, Mom Says,”
CNN.com
, December 8, 2014.

4
. Angela Irvine and Aisha Canfield, “Factsheet: The Overrepresentation of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Questioning, Gender Nonconforming, and Transgender Youth in the Juvenile Justice System,” Impact Justice, July 1, 2015.

5
. U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights, Civil Rights Data Collection, 2011–12, available at
http://ocrdata.ed.gov
. Data notes are available at
http://ocrdata.ed.gov/downloads/DataNotes.docx
.

6
. Civil Rights Data Collection, 2011–12.

7
. Kevin Koeninger, “Arrested and Beaten for Dozing in Class,” Courthouse News Service, May 7, 2013.

8
. Tamara Lush, “Kiera Wilmot Will Not Be Charged for Explosion at Florida School,”
Huffington Post
, April 15, 2013.

9
. Ibid.

10
. “Girl Arrested in Texas for Inappropriate Prom Dress,”
Capitol Street
, May 13, 2008,
http://capitolstreet.wordpress.com/2008/05/13/girl-arrested-in-texas-for-inappropriate-prom-dress
.

11
. “Palmdale High School Student Battered by School Guard,” ABC News via YouTube, uploaded September 30, 2007,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3_gr_VBRhO4
.
See also Jessica Valenti, “Teenage Girl Beaten, Expelled, and Arrested . . . for Dropping Cake,”
Feministing.com
, October 1, 2007,
http://feministing.com/2007/10/01/teenage_girl_beaten_expelled_a_1
.

12
. Janice D'Arcy, “Salecia Johnson, 6, Handcuffed After Tantrum, What's Wrong with This Picture?,”
Washington Post
, April 18, 2012.

13
. Bill Bush, “Westerville Police Criticized for Handcuffing Children After School-Bus Fight,”
Columbus Dispatch
, November 17, 2011.

14
. “Kindergarten Girl Handcuffed, Arrested at Fla. School,”
WFTV.com
, March 30, 2007,
http://www.wftv.com/news/news/kindergarten-girl-handcuffed-arrested-at-fla-schoo/nFBR4
.

15
. Georgia Slave Code, 1848.

16
. “Catherine Ferguson: Founder, New York City's First Sunday School, Born 1779–Died July 11, 1854,” Early America,
http://www.earlyamerica.com/catherine-ferguson
.

17
. Anonymous, “Katy Ferguson: The Woman Who Loved All Children,” OneHistory,
http://www.onehistory.org/katy.htm
.

18
. “Douglas, Sarah Mapps (1806–1882),” BlackPast,
http://www.blackpast.org/aah/douglass-sarah-mapps-1806-1882
.

19
. National Council of Negro Women, Inc., “Mary McLeod Bethune,”
http://ncnw.org/about/Bethune.htm
.

20
. Gerda Lerner, ed.,
Black Women in White America: A Documentary History
(New York: Vintage Books, 1972).

21
. See, for example,
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
, 347 U.S. 483, 1954.

22
. See, for example, Wanda Blanchett, Vincent Mumford, and Floyd Beachum, “Urban School Failure and Disproportionality in a Post-Brown Era: Benign Neglect of the Constitutional Rights of Students of Color,”
Remedial and Special Education
26, no. 2 (March–April 2005): 70–81.

23
. See, for example, W.E.B. Du Bois,
The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study
(1898; Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995). See also Charles S. Johnson,
The Negro in Chicago: A Study of Race Relations and a Race Riot
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1922).

24
. Patricia Hill-Collins,
Black Sexual Politics: African Americans, Gender, and the New Racism
(New York: Routledge, 2004), 193.

25
. Monique W. Morris,
Race, Gender, and the School-to-Prison Pipeline: Expanding Our Discussion to Include Black Girls
(New York: African American Policy Forum, 2012).

26
.
Kimberlé Crenshaw, Priscilla Ocen, and Jyoti Nanda,
Black Girls Matter: Pushed-Out, Over-Policed and Under-Protected
(New York: African American Policy Forum, 2015).

27
. Daniel Losen and Jonathan Gillespie,
Opportunities Suspended: The Disparate Impact of Disciplinary Exclusion from School
(Los Angeles: Center for Civil Rights Remedies at the University of California, Los Angeles Civil Rights Project, 2012). See also John Wallace, Sarah Goodkind, Cynthia Wallace, and Jerald Bachman, “Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Differences in School Discipline Among U.S. High School Students: 1991–2005,”
Negro Educational Review
59, nos. 1–2 (2008): 47–62.

28
. Nikki Jones,
Between Good and Ghetto: African American Girls and Inner-City Violence
(Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2009).

29
. Jamilia Blake, Betty Ray Butler, Chance Lewis, and Alicia Darensbourg, “Unmasking the Inequitable Discipline Experiences of Urban Black Girls: Implications for Urban Educational Stakeholders,”
Urban Review
43, no. 1 (2011): 90–106. See also Kristi Holsinger and Alexander Holsinger, “Different Pathways to Violence and Self-Injurious Behavior: African American and White Girls in the Juvenile Justice System,”
Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
42, no. 2 (2005): 211–42.

30
. Blake et al., “Unmasking the Inequitable Discipline Experiences of Urban Black Girls.”

31
. Edward W. Morris, “‘Ladies' or ‘Loudies'? Perceptions and Experiences of Black Girls in Classrooms,”
Youth and Society
38, no. 4 (2007): 490–515.

32
. Kathleen Nolan,
Police in the Hallways: Discipline in an Urban High School
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011).

33
. American Bar Association and National Bar Association,
Justice by Gender: The Lack of Appropriate Prevention, Diversion, and Treatment Alternatives for Girls in the Juvenile Justice System
(Washington, DC: ABA, NBA, 2001). See also Monique W. Morris, Stephanie Bush-Baskette, and Kimberlé Crenshaw,
Confined in California: Women and Girls of Color in Custody
(New York: African American Policy Forum, 2012).

34
. Cathy S. Widom and Michael G. Maxfield, “An Update on the ‘Cycle of Violence,'” Research in Brief, U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, February 2001, NCJ 184894.

35
. Gretchen R. Cusick, Judy R. Havlicek, and Mark E. Courtney, “Risk of Arrest: The Role of Social Bonds in Protecting Foster Youth Making the Transition
to Adulthood,”
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry
82, no. 1 (2012): 19–31; Barbara Bloom, Barbara Owen, and Stephanie Covington,
Gender-Responsive Strategies: Research, Practice, and Guiding Principles for Women Offenders
(Washington, DC: National Institute of Corrections, 2002), 64.

36
. Barbara Bloom and David Steinhart,
Why Punish the Children?: A Reappraisal of the Children of Incarcerated Mothers in California
(Oakland, CA: National Council on Crime and Delinquency, 1993.

37
. Lerner,
Black Women in White America
, 574.

1. Struggling to Survive

1
. Nikki Jones,
Between Good and Ghetto: African American Girls and Inner City Violence
(New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2009), 158.

2
. Angela Y. Davis,
Women, Race and Class
(New York: Vintage Books, 1981), 6.

3
. Jones,
Between Good and Ghetto
.

4
. Ibid., 48–49.

5
. Gerda Lerner, ed.,
Black Women in White America: A Documentary History
(New York: Vintage Books, 1972), 165.

6
. Katherine Gallager Robbins and Anne Morrison,
National Snapshot: Poverty Among Women and Families
(Washington, DC: National Women's Law Center, 2014).

7
. Bureau of Labor Statistics,
The Employment Situation—December 2014
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, 2014). Unemployment rates are seasonally adjusted.

8
. American Association of University Women.
How Does Race Affect the Wage Gap?
(Washington, DC: AAUW, 2014).

9
. E. Ann Carson and Daniela Golinelli,
Prisoners in 2012: Trends in Admissions and Releases, 1991–2012
(Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2013); The Sentencing Project,
Incarcerated Women
(Washington, DC.: The Sentencing Project, n.d.).

10
. Annie E. Casey Foundation,
Kids Count 2014 Databook: State Trends in Child Well-Being
. (Baltimore, MD: Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2014), 19.

11
. U.S. Census Bureau,
People in Families by Family Structure, Age, and Sex, Iterated by Income-to-Poverty Ratio and Race: 2012, Below 100% of Poverty—Black Alone or in Combination (A.O.I.C.)
(Washington, DC: Census Bureau, 2013).

12
.
National Center for Education Statistics,
Percentage of High School Dropouts Among Persons 16 Through 24 Years Old (Status Dropout Rate), by Sex and Race/Ethnicity: Selected Years, 1960 Through 2012
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 2013). See also U.S. Census Bureau,
Current Population Survey (CPS), 1967 Through 2012
(Washington, DC: Census Bureau, 2013).

13
. Charles Puzzanchera, Benjamin Adams, and Sarah Hockenberry,
Juvenile Court Statistics 2009
(Pittsburgh, PA: National Center for Juvenile Justice, 2012), 26.

14
. Melissa Sickmund,
Juveniles in Corrections
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, 2004). See also National Center for Juvenile Justice,
Easy Access to the Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement: 1997–2010
(Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2015).

15
. Centers for Disease Control,
Leading Causes of Death by Age Group, African American Females—United States
(Atlanta, GA: CDC, 2011).

16
. Shannan Catalano,
Intimate Partner Violence 1993–2010
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice Statistics, 2012).

17
. Margot Adler, “Before Rosa Parks, There Was Claudette Colvin,”
Weekend Edition Sunday
, National Public Radio, March 15, 2009.

18
.
Biography.com
, “Claudette Colvin,”
http://www.biography.com/people/claudette-colvin-11378
.

19
. Adler, “Before Rosa Parks.”

20
. W.E.B. Du Bois,
The Souls of Black Folk
(New York: New American Library, 1969), 45.

21
. Kimberlé Crenshaw, “Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics,”
University of Chicago Legal Forum
(1989): 139.

22
. Audre Lorde, “Learning from the 60s,” in
Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches
(Trumansburg, NY: Crossing Press, 1984).

23
. bell hooks,
Black Looks: Race and Representation
(Boston: South End Press, 1992), 115–31.

24
. Education is correlated with occupational options. An analysis of census data conducted by Valerie Wilson found that median inflation-adjusted annual earnings for African American women working full-time in 2013 were 3.3 percent below the 2009 level, compared to 0.2 percent and 0.5 percent lower for white and Hispanic women, respectively, for that same period. While Black women consistently earned less than their White counterparts, increases in access to education
were associated with greater earnings. See Valerie Wilson, “Post-recession Decline in Black Women's Wages Is Consistent with Occupational Downgrading
,
” Economic Policy Institute, October 8, 2014. See also Dana Wood, Rachel Kaplan, and Vonnie McCloyd, “Gender Differences in the Educational Expectations of Urban, Low-Income, African American Youth: The Role of Parents and the School,”
Journal of Youth and Adolescence
36, no. 4 (2007): 417–27.

25
. Linda Darling-Hammond, “Quality Teaching: What Is It and How Can It Be Measured?,” PowerPoint presentation, Stanford University, 2011,
https://edpolicy.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/events/materials/ldhscopeteacher-effectiveness.pdf
.

26
. Jan Hughes and Oi-man Kwok, “Influence of Student-Teacher and Parent-Teacher Relationships on Lower Achieving Readers' Engagement and Achievement in the Primary Grades,”
Journal of Educational Psychology
99, no. 1 (2007): 39–51.

27
. Gloria Ladson-Billings, “I Ain't Writin' Nuttin': Permissions to Fail and Demands to Succeed in Urban Classrooms,” in
The Skin That We Speak
:
Thoughts on Language and Culture in the Classroom
, ed. Lisa Delpit and Joanne Kilgour Dowdy (New York: The New Press, 2002), 111.

28
. Caroline Hodges Persell,
Education and Inequality: The Roots and Results of Stratification in America's Schools
(New York: The Free Press, 1977).

29
. Peter Senge,
The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of The Learning Organization
(New York: Currency Doubleday, 1990).

30
. Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton,
American Apartheid: Segregation ad the Making of the Underclass
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 18–19.