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Edmund Sayers, too, died before he reached home, leaving William Eaton as the only original member of the factory to make it back to England. He managed to avoid censure by refusing to cooperate with company inquiries. When quizzed about his licentious behavior, he gave only “cold and uncertain answers” and the merchants dismissed him in disgust. Although he lived to a ripe old age, he never again served with the East India Company
The English had left Japan unwillingly and in disgrace, yet their departure came at a fortuitous moment. Shortly after they set sail from Hirado, Hidetada was replaced as shogun by his sadistic son, Iemitsu. He harbored a passionate hatred of foreigners and proceeded to hound them out of the country with a barbarity that had never before been witnessed. The Jesuits were the first to feel his wrath. The few remaining priests were tortured in the most gruesome fashion, along with the converts who refused to apostatize. Next it was the turn of the Portuguese traders. They were expelled in 1637 and ordered never to return. When one of their vessels broke this command, everyone on board was trussed up and decapitated. The Dutch, too, did not escape the shogun’s
wrath. With Adams no longer alive to fight their corner, they found themselves evicted from Hirado and confined to the tiny island of Deshima in Nagasaki Bay. Although allowed to continue a trade of sorts, they were closely watched and denied all contact with the Japanese.
wrath. With Adams no longer alive to fight their corner, they found themselves evicted from Hirado and confined to the tiny island of Deshima in Nagasaki Bay. Although allowed to continue a trade of sorts, they were closely watched and denied all contact with the Japanese.
The Land of the Rising Sun had entered a period known as
sakoku
—the closed country She had seen enough of troublesome foreigners and their bitter internecine wars. Now, after a century of contact, Japan closed her windows on the world and denied traders entry into her profitable markets and cities. The few mariners who dared to sail there—or were unlucky enough to be shipwrecked—were arrested, tortured, and killed.
sakoku
—the closed country She had seen enough of troublesome foreigners and their bitter internecine wars. Now, after a century of contact, Japan closed her windows on the world and denied traders entry into her profitable markets and cities. The few mariners who dared to sail there—or were unlucky enough to be shipwrecked—were arrested, tortured, and killed.
It was to be more than 200 years before Englishmen—and other foreigners—would once again set foot in this Eastern realm. When they did eventually return and explored the pagodas and temples of Tokyo, they were astonished to discover that William Adams’s name was still famous throughout the land. They were told the marvelous story of Adams’s rise at court: how he had been spokesman and adviser, tutor and oracle. His title, estate, and extraordinary friendship with the shogun had left a deep and lasting impression on the Japanese. As a mark of their respect, they had named an area of Tokyo, Anjincho, in his honor.
They had also kept his name alive in their prayers. In the sacred gloom of the Jodoji temple, close to where William Adams once had his town house, a crowd of believers gathered once a year to honor his memory. They chose the Jodoji for their pilgrimage because this was where Adams himself was said to have made his devotions.
Two centuries earlier, Adams had stood in humility before the pantheon of deities. Now, amid a flicker of lamps and candles, the crowds came to remember Anjin Sama—the mariner from Lime-house—whose name was still famous throughout the land.
As incense thickened the air, and bells clanged in the twilight, they prayed for the soul of Samurai William.
The language used by William Adams, Richard Cocks, and the other men is quirky and rich. But their eccentric spelling often makes their diaries and letters hard to read. I have modified and standardized some archaic spellings, while trying not to tamper too much with the piquancy of the original.
“Theyre” and “there” have been changed to “their” where appropriate; “ye” becomes “the.” All names of people and places have been standardized, and some superscript letters have been lowered. The old-fashioned
v
has been replaced by
u
; and
i
has been changed to
j
where appropriate (so “iudge” becomes “judge”). William Adams frequently uses contractions; these have been spelled out in full.
v
has been replaced by
u
; and
i
has been changed to
j
where appropriate (so “iudge” becomes “judge”). William Adams frequently uses contractions; these have been spelled out in full.
I have also modernized some words whose original forms are so bizarre that they are almost unreadable. Those wishing to consult the diaries and letters in their original forms will find the relevant sources listed in the Notes and Sources.
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Big Chief Elizabeth: The Adventures and Fate of the First English Colonists in America
NOTES AND SOURCES
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
INDEX
William Adams and his men left a wealth of material about their new lives in Japan. But their handwritten letters and journals—mostly housed in the British Library—are extremely hard to decipher. Until very recently, only a few of these had been published, often in editions that were far from satisfactory. Richard Cocks’s colorful diary, for example, first printed in 1883 for the Hakluyt Society, was heavily expurgated by its Victorian editor.
In researching and writing Samurai William, I have been fortunate to have access to new and scholarly printed editions. Anthony Farrington’s two-volume
The English Factory in Japan, 1613–23
, published in 1991 by the British Library, is indispensable. It contains all Adams’s letters and logbooks, along with those of his colleagues, and it also includes the factory’s account books, wills, and diaries. It supplants Thomas Rundall’s
Memorials of the Empire of Japan in the XVI and XVII Centuries
, published by the Hakluyt Society in 1850.
The English Factory in Japan, 1613–23
, published in 1991 by the British Library, is indispensable. It contains all Adams’s letters and logbooks, along with those of his colleagues, and it also includes the factory’s account books, wills, and diaries. It supplants Thomas Rundall’s
Memorials of the Empire of Japan in the XVI and XVII Centuries
, published by the Hakluyt Society in 1850.
The three-volume edition of Richard Cocks’s diary, published 1978–81, is also invaluable (see notes for Chapter 8); it contains all the material missing from the volumes published in 1883.
Derek Massarella’s superb
A World Elsewhere: Europe’s Encounter with Japan in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries
, published in 1990 by Yale University Press, provides a detailed analysis of both the English and the Dutch in Japan, and considers the reasons for the economic decline of the Hirado factory
A World Elsewhere: Europe’s Encounter with Japan in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries
, published in 1990 by Yale University Press, provides a detailed analysis of both the English and the Dutch in Japan, and considers the reasons for the economic decline of the Hirado factory
The history of the Catholic missions in Japan remains underresearched. C. R. Boxer’s
Christian Century in Japan
was published by Cambridge University Press in 1951, yet it remains the standard text on the missions. It is best read in conjunction with Michael Cooper’s
They Came to Japan: An Anthology of European Reports on Japan, 1543–1640
, published by Thames & Hudson in 1965. This contains generous extracts from Padre Alessandro Valignano’s
Historia del Principio y Progresso de la Compania de Jesus en las Indias Orientales;
Padre Luis Frois’s
Historia do Japão
and
Cartas;
and Padre João Rodrigues’s
Historia da Igreja do Japão.
Christian Century in Japan
was published by Cambridge University Press in 1951, yet it remains the standard text on the missions. It is best read in conjunction with Michael Cooper’s
They Came to Japan: An Anthology of European Reports on Japan, 1543–1640
, published by Thames & Hudson in 1965. This contains generous extracts from Padre Alessandro Valignano’s
Historia del Principio y Progresso de la Compania de Jesus en las Indias Orientales;
Padre Luis Frois’s
Historia do Japão
and
Cartas;
and Padre João Rodrigues’s
Historia da Igreja do Japão.
Michael Cooper’s book
João Rodrigues’s Account of Sixteenth-Century Japan
, published in 2002 by the Hakluyt Society, is a welcome addition to his
This Island of Japan: João Rodrigues’ Account of 16th-Century Japan,
published in Tokyo and New York by Kodansha International, 1973.
João Rodrigues’s Account of Sixteenth-Century Japan
, published in 2002 by the Hakluyt Society, is a welcome addition to his
This Island of Japan: João Rodrigues’ Account of 16th-Century Japan,
published in Tokyo and New York by Kodansha International, 1973.
An excellent background to the period is provided by Donald Lach in his monumental
Asia in the Making of Europe
, published in nine volumes by the University of Chicago Press, 1965–93. Much of the relevant information about Japan can be found in Volume 3, Book 4, Chapter 23. Another invaluable reference book is the
Kodansha Encyclopaedia of Japan
, published by Kodansha in Tokyo.
Asia in the Making of Europe
, published in nine volumes by the University of Chicago Press, 1965–93. Much of the relevant information about Japan can be found in Volume 3, Book 4, Chapter 23. Another invaluable reference book is the
Kodansha Encyclopaedia of Japan
, published by Kodansha in Tokyo.
Many of the books listed below are long out of print, and some—especially those published in the aftermath of World War II—are not available in the UK. The most comprehensive collection of material relating to the English in Japan is housed in the Japan Foundation in Tokyo.
A full reference for each book will be given when it is first mentioned in these notes.
Prologue
The saltiest and most piquant Elizabethan worldview is to be found in Richard Hakluyt’s twelve-volume
The Principal Navigations
,
Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation.
Hakluyt collected his material firsthand—from newly returned captains and mariners—and his book contains a wealth of material on the Indies, Africa, and the Americas. Japan—yet to be visited by an Englishman—receives only cursory coverage. First published in its enlarged edition between 1598 and 1600, it was reprinted as a Hakluyt Society Extra Series in 1903–5.
The Principal Navigations
,
Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation.
Hakluyt collected his material firsthand—from newly returned captains and mariners—and his book contains a wealth of material on the Indies, Africa, and the Americas. Japan—yet to be visited by an Englishman—receives only cursory coverage. First published in its enlarged edition between 1598 and 1600, it was reprinted as a Hakluyt Society Extra Series in 1903–5.
William Adams belonged to a generation whose horizons were continually expanding. The newly awakened sense of global possibility is expressed most eloquently and enthusiastically by the Arctic adventurer George Beste. His preface to the account of Martin Frobisher’s 1576 expedition can be found in the Hakluyt Society’s
The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher
, 1867.
The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher
, 1867.
Chapter 1
An outline of the voyages and accounts of the first Europeans in Japan—including an investigation into their veracity—can be found in Chapter I of C. R. Boxer’s
Christian Century in Japan.
Michael Cooper’s illustrated
Southern Barbarians: The First Europeans in Japan,
published by Kodansha International in 1971, focuses on the Jesuits in Japan and includes generous extracts from Frois and Rodrigues. Additional material on early Portuguese adventurers can be found in the fourth volume of Georg Schurhammer’s monumental
Francis Xavier, His Life, His Times
, published by the Jesuit Historical Institute in Rome in 1982; see especially p. 260 ff, note 95–118.
Christian Century in Japan.
Michael Cooper’s illustrated
Southern Barbarians: The First Europeans in Japan,
published by Kodansha International in 1971, focuses on the Jesuits in Japan and includes generous extracts from Frois and Rodrigues. Additional material on early Portuguese adventurers can be found in the fourth volume of Georg Schurhammer’s monumental
Francis Xavier, His Life, His Times
, published by the Jesuit Historical Institute in Rome in 1982; see especially p. 260 ff, note 95–118.
The first English translation of Ferñao Mendes Pinto’s
Peregrinaçam,
entitled
The Voyages and Adventures,
was published in 1663.
Peregrinaçam,
entitled
The Voyages and Adventures,
was published in 1663.
The Otomo family fortunes are dealt with in some detail in
The Cambridge History of Japan,
published by Cambridge University Press in 1993; see Volume 4, edited by John Whitney Hall, pp. 350–5.
The Cambridge History of Japan,
published by Cambridge University Press in 1993; see Volume 4, edited by John Whitney Hall, pp. 350–5.
The brief outline of Japanese history during the
sengoku jidai
(the era of civil wars) is drawn largely from James Murdoch and Isoh Yamagata’s
A History of Japan during the Century of Early Foreign Intercourse, 1512–1651
, first published by the Asiatic Society of Japan in Kobe in 1903.
sengoku jidai
(the era of civil wars) is drawn largely from James Murdoch and Isoh Yamagata’s
A History of Japan during the Century of Early Foreign Intercourse, 1512–1651
, first published by the Asiatic Society of Japan in Kobe in 1903.
Jorge Alvarez’s report on the Japanese can be found, in an English translation, in the first chapter of C. R. Boxer’s
Christian Century in Japan.
Francis Xavier’s mission to Japan is covered in exhaustive detail in Georg Schurhammer’s biography. The footnotes in Volume 4 contain lengthy quotations from original sources.
Christian Century in Japan.
Francis Xavier’s mission to Japan is covered in exhaustive detail in Georg Schurhammer’s biography. The footnotes in Volume 4 contain lengthy quotations from original sources.
The best account of Portuguese traders in Japan is to be found in C. R. Boxer’s
The Great Ship from Amacon
, published by the Centro de Estudios Historicos Ultramarinos in 1959. This includes a year-by-year account of trading voyages, as well as extracts from Japanese state papers.
The Great Ship from Amacon
, published by the Centro de Estudios Historicos Ultramarinos in 1959. This includes a year-by-year account of trading voyages, as well as extracts from Japanese state papers.
Chapter 2
The account of Pet and Jackman’s disastrous 1580 expedition to Japan is published in Volume 3 of Richard Hakluyt’s
Principal Navigations
. This includes William Borough’s instructions, pp. 259–62; Dr. Dee’s advice, pp. 262–3; Richard Hakluyt’s notes, pp. 264–75; and the journal of the voyage, pp. 282–303.
Principal Navigations
. This includes William Borough’s instructions, pp. 259–62; Dr. Dee’s advice, pp. 262–3; Richard Hakluyt’s notes, pp. 264–75; and the journal of the voyage, pp. 282–303.
Richard Willes’s
A Historye of Travaile
was published in 1577; his reports on both China and Japan can also be found in Hakluyt’s
Principal Navigations
. Willes’s account of the “monstrous muchaches” of the men of Hokkaido was no flight of fancy: see the illustrations in Savage Landor’s
Alone with the Hairy Ainu
, published by John Murray in 1893.
A Historye of Travaile
was published in 1577; his reports on both China and Japan can also be found in Hakluyt’s
Principal Navigations
. Willes’s account of the “monstrous muchaches” of the men of Hokkaido was no flight of fancy: see the illustrations in Savage Landor’s
Alone with the Hairy Ainu
, published by John Murray in 1893.
Icebergs were feared by all Arctic adventurers and presented a significant threat to Elizabethan galleons. For a graphic account of the dangers, see Thomas Ellis’s “A true report,” in
The Third Voyage of Martin Frobisher to Baffin Island
, edited by James McDermott, Hakluyt Society, 2001, pp. 197–200.
The Third Voyage of Martin Frobisher to Baffin Island
, edited by James McDermott, Hakluyt Society, 2001, pp. 197–200.
For references to biographies of William Adams, see the notes for Chapter 5. Adams, as apprentice to Nicholas Diggins, would have had access to William Bourne’s
A Regiment for the Sea,
1577, Martin Cortes’s
Art of Navigation
(translated by Richard Eden and published in 1561), and Lucas Waghenaer’s
Spieghel der Zeervaert
, 1585. Adams was an experienced pilot by 1598 and his letters reveal that he owned at least some of his own navigational equipment.
A Regiment for the Sea,
1577, Martin Cortes’s
Art of Navigation
(translated by Richard Eden and published in 1561), and Lucas Waghenaer’s
Spieghel der Zeervaert
, 1585. Adams was an experienced pilot by 1598 and his letters reveal that he owned at least some of his own navigational equipment.
Chapter 3
The most comprehensive account of William Adams’s voyage to Japan is contained in the three-volume
De Ries van Mahu en de Cordes,
edited by Dr F. C. Wieder. This was published by the Lindschoten Society between 1923 and 1925 and has a wealth of information about captains, crews, equipment, weaponry, and objectives. Unfortunately, it is only available in Dutch; I am most grateful to Marjolein van der Valk for translating large sections of this book.
De Ries van Mahu en de Cordes,
edited by Dr F. C. Wieder. This was published by the Lindschoten Society between 1923 and 1925 and has a wealth of information about captains, crews, equipment, weaponry, and objectives. Unfortunately, it is only available in Dutch; I am most grateful to Marjolein van der Valk for translating large sections of this book.
A shorter account of the voyage is available in English translation. Constantine de Renneville’s
Recueil des Voyages,
1702, was published in English in 1703 under the title
Collection of Voyages Undertaken by the Dutch East India Company
. Extracts from Sebald de Weert’s account can be found in English in the second volume of Samuel Purchas’s twenty-volume
Purchas His Pilgrims
, republished as a Hakluyt Society Extra Series between 1905 and 1907. William Adams’s own accounts of the voyage, written circa 1605 and 1611, are published in Anthony Farrington’s
The English Factory in Japan.
Recueil des Voyages,
1702, was published in English in 1703 under the title
Collection of Voyages Undertaken by the Dutch East India Company
. Extracts from Sebald de Weert’s account can be found in English in the second volume of Samuel Purchas’s twenty-volume
Purchas His Pilgrims
, republished as a Hakluyt Society Extra Series between 1905 and 1907. William Adams’s own accounts of the voyage, written circa 1605 and 1611, are published in Anthony Farrington’s
The English Factory in Japan.
I have drawn on other contemporary accounts for background material. For further information about scurvy, see Sir Richard Hawkins’s
The Hawkins Voyages,
Hakluyt Society, 1878, p. 138 ff, and Sir James Lancaster’s
Voyage to the East Indies,
Hakluyt Society, 1877. For the dangers of the doldrums, see
The Troublesome Voyage of Edward Fenton
, Hakluyt Society, 1959. For more on the Cape Verde Islands, see Sir Richard Hawkins’s account in
The Hawkins Voyages
and the description of Thomas Cavendish’s 1586 circumnavigation in Hakluyt’s
Principal Navigations
, Volume 11, p. 291 ff. For more on West Africa’s voluptuous womenfolk, see Pieter de Marees’s
Description and Historical Account of the Gold Kingdom of Guinea,
1602, published in English by the Oxford University Press in 1987.
The Hawkins Voyages,
Hakluyt Society, 1878, p. 138 ff, and Sir James Lancaster’s
Voyage to the East Indies,
Hakluyt Society, 1877. For the dangers of the doldrums, see
The Troublesome Voyage of Edward Fenton
, Hakluyt Society, 1959. For more on the Cape Verde Islands, see Sir Richard Hawkins’s account in
The Hawkins Voyages
and the description of Thomas Cavendish’s 1586 circumnavigation in Hakluyt’s
Principal Navigations
, Volume 11, p. 291 ff. For more on West Africa’s voluptuous womenfolk, see Pieter de Marees’s
Description and Historical Account of the Gold Kingdom of Guinea,
1602, published in English by the Oxford University Press in 1987.
A good general background to Dutch exploration is to be found in George Masselman’s
The Cradle of Colonialism
, published by Yale University Press in 1963.
The Cradle of Colonialism
, published by Yale University Press in 1963.
Chapter 4
Alessandro Valignano’s mission to Japan is covered in considerable detail in J. F. Moran’s
The Japanese and the Jesuits,
published by Routledge in 1993. The book investigates Jesuit attempts to integrate themselves and includes sections on Japanese Jesuits and the Jesuit printing press in Japan. There are also lengthy quotes from Valignano’s
Sumario
and
Historia del Principio,
and his
Advertimentos
, sometimes known in English as
The Customs and Ceremonies of Japan.
The Jesuit mission is also investigated by C. R. Boxer in his
Christian Century in Japan and
by Michael Cooper in
Southern Barbarians
.
The Japanese and the Jesuits,
published by Routledge in 1993. The book investigates Jesuit attempts to integrate themselves and includes sections on Japanese Jesuits and the Jesuit printing press in Japan. There are also lengthy quotes from Valignano’s
Sumario
and
Historia del Principio,
and his
Advertimentos
, sometimes known in English as
The Customs and Ceremonies of Japan.
The Jesuit mission is also investigated by C. R. Boxer in his
Christian Century in Japan and
by Michael Cooper in
Southern Barbarians
.
There are two Portuguese accounts of the
Liefde’s
arrival in
The Travels of Pedro Teixeira,
Hakluyt Society, 1902. These include extracts from Diogo de Couto’s
Decada Decima
and from Ferñao Guerreiro’s
Relaçam Annual
.
Liefde’s
arrival in
The Travels of Pedro Teixeira,
Hakluyt Society, 1902. These include extracts from Diogo de Couto’s
Decada Decima
and from Ferñao Guerreiro’s
Relaçam Annual
.
Adams’s fear of crucifixion was real enough; Francesco Carletti’s description is taken from Michael Cooper,
They Came to Japan.
They Came to Japan.
Osaka impressed all foreign visitors, as did the beautiful interiors of the city merchants’ houses. Padre Luis Frois’s description, and João Rodrigues’s account, can be found in
They Came to Japan.
They Came to Japan.
The only English-language biography of Tokugawa Ieyasu is L. Sadler’s
The Maker of Modern Japan: The Life of Tokugawa Ieyasu,
published by Allen & Unwin in 1937. His wiles and his battles are dealt with in detail in James Murdoch and Isoh Yamagata’s
A History of Japan.
An entire chapter is dedicated to an analysis of the battle of Sekigahara.
The Maker of Modern Japan: The Life of Tokugawa Ieyasu,
published by Allen & Unwin in 1937. His wiles and his battles are dealt with in detail in James Murdoch and Isoh Yamagata’s
A History of Japan.
An entire chapter is dedicated to an analysis of the battle of Sekigahara.
The best description of an audience with Ieyasu is taken from the account of Rodrigo de Vivero y Velasco, reprinted in
They Came to Japan.
The pungent account of a Japanese prison, written by Father Diego de San Francisco, is quoted in Murdoch and Yamagata, Volume 2, p. 604.
They Came to Japan.
The pungent account of a Japanese prison, written by Father Diego de San Francisco, is quoted in Murdoch and Yamagata, Volume 2, p. 604.
Chapter 5
William Adams has been the subject of several biographies and essays; few offer more than cursory coverage of Adams’s relationships with Saris, Cocks, and the others.
P. G. Rogers’s
The First Englishman in Japan,
published by the Harvill Press in 1956, provides a useful overview; Richard Tames’s
Servant of the Shogun
, published by Paul Norbury Publications, 1981, is short but reasonably accurate. Other, older accounts include Arthur Diosy’s “In Memory of Will Adams,” in
Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society
, 6, London, 1906; and Ilza Vieta’s “Englishman or Samurai: The Story of Will Adams,” in
Far Eastern Quarterly
, 5, Wisconsin, 1945. More recently William Corr has written
Adams the Pilot
, published
by the Japan Library in 1995, and the privately published
Orders for the Captain
, Wild Boar Press, Sakai, 1999. Both contain interesting material but require some background knowledge of the period.
The First Englishman in Japan,
published by the Harvill Press in 1956, provides a useful overview; Richard Tames’s
Servant of the Shogun
, published by Paul Norbury Publications, 1981, is short but reasonably accurate. Other, older accounts include Arthur Diosy’s “In Memory of Will Adams,” in
Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society
, 6, London, 1906; and Ilza Vieta’s “Englishman or Samurai: The Story of Will Adams,” in
Far Eastern Quarterly
, 5, Wisconsin, 1945. More recently William Corr has written
Adams the Pilot
, published
by the Japan Library in 1995, and the privately published
Orders for the Captain
, Wild Boar Press, Sakai, 1999. Both contain interesting material but require some background knowledge of the period.
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