Spain: A Unique History (51 page)

21. See R. García Cárcel, ed.,
La construcción de las Historias de España
(Madrid, 2004).

22. Quoted in the excellent brief study by X. Gil Pujol, "Un rey, una fe, muchas naciones: Patria y nación en la España de los siglos XVI-XVII," in A. Álvarez-Ossorio Alvarino and B. J. García García, eds.,
La Monarquía de las naciones: Patria, nación y naturaleza en la Monarquía de España
(Madrid, 2004), 39-76.

23. I. A. A. Thompson, "Castile, Spain and the Monarchy: The Political Community from
patria natural
to
patria nacional
," in R. L. Kagan and G. Parker, eds.,
Spain, Europe, and the Atlantic World: Essays in Honour of John H. Elliott
(Cambridge, 1995),125-59.

24. J. A. Pelayo and A. S. Tarrés, "Los orígenes del Estado moderno español: Ideas, hombres y estructuras," in A. Floristán, ed.,
Historia de España en la edad moderna
(Barcelona, 2004), 221-43; J. Villanueva,
Política y discurso histórico en la España del siglo XVII: Las polemicas sobre los orígenes medievales de Cataluña
(Alicante, 2004).

25. R. A. Stradling,
Philip IV and the Government of Spain, 1621-1665
(Cambridge, 1988).

26. H. Kamen,
Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492-1763
(New York, 2003).

27. For an attractive and careful new description, see F. Martínez Laínez and J. M. Sánchez de Toca,
Tercios de España: La infantería legendaria
(Madrid, 2006).

28. See the classic works of J. H. Parry,
The Spanish Theory of Empire in the Sixteenth Century
(Cambridge, 1940); S. Zavala,
The Political Philosophy of the Conquest ofAmerica
(Mexico, 1953); and L. Hanke,
The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America
(Boston, 1965); the more recent studies by A. Pagden,
The Fall of Natural Man: The American Indian and the Origins of Comparative Ethnology
(Cambridge, 1986),
Spanish Imperialism and the Political Imagination
(New Haven, Conn., 1990),
European Encounters with the New World: From Renaissance to Romanticism
(New Haven, Conn., 1993),
Uncertainties of Empire
(Aldershot, 1994), and
Lords of All the World: Ideologies of Empire in Spain, Britain, and France c. 1500-c. 1800
(New Haven, Conn., 1995); as well as D. Armitage, ed.,
Theories of Empire, 1450-1800
(Aldershot, 1998), and J. Muldoon,
The Americas in the Spanish World Order: The Justification for Conquest in the Seventeenth Century
(Philadelphia, 1994). Cf. D. Armitage,
The Ideological Origins of the British Empire
(Cambridge, 2000).

29. D. A. Lupher,
Romans in a New World: Classical Models in Sixteenth-Century Spanish America
(Ann Arbor, 2003).

30. The best comparison of the two major American empires is J. H. Elliott,
Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America, 1492-1830
(New Haven, Conn., 2006). Cf. C. Véliz,
The New World of the Gothic Fox: Culture and Economy in English and Spanish America
(Berkeley, 1994).

31. These problems receive extended analysis in the new study of A. M. Bernal,
España, proyecto inacabado: Costes/beneficios del Imperio
(Madrid, 2005).

1. E.g., D. Stanislawski,
The Individuality of Portugal: A Study in Historical-Political Geography
(Austin, 1959).

2. Probably the best account is J. Mattoso,
Identificaçao de um país: Ensaio sobre as origens de Portugal 1096-1325
, 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1985).

3. L. F. Thomaz, "L'Idée impériale manueline," in J. Aubin, ed.,
La Découverte, le Portugal et l'Europe
(Paris, 1990), 35-103.

4. L. Valensi,
Fables de la mémoire: La glorieuse bataille des trois rois
(Paris, 1992).

5. A somewhat different situation, however, is reflected by the achievements enumerated and described by S. G. Marks,
How Russia Shaped the Modern World: From Art to AntiSemitism, Ballet to Bolshevism
(Princeton, N.J., 2003). The case of Russia has to do with a country that was a great power from the eighteenth century on, whose population explosion in the nineteenth century generated a large intelligentsia that produced many new ideas and innovations — quite the opposite from a very small and (after the sixteenth century) weak country like Portugal. Moreover, much of the influence of the Russian achievements was destructive, and this was true of the Portuguese innovations to a considerably lesser degree.

6. Garrett Mattingly, in lectures of his course "The Expansion of Europe" at Columbia in the 1950s.

7. Cf. J. Reis,
0 atraso económico português 1850-1930
(Lisbon, 1993).

8. J. A. Rocamora,
El nacionalismo ibérico 1792-1936
(Valladolid, 1994).

9. H. de la Torre Gómez,
El imperio del Rey: Alfonso XIII, Portugal y los ingleses (1907-1916)
(Mérida, 2002).

10. See S. Payne,
Franco and Hitler
(New Haven, Conn., 2008), for a more extensive treatment.

11. A. J. Telo,
Portugal e a NATO: 0 reencontro da tradição atlântica
(Lisbon, 1996).

1. This position had accordingly negative consequences for the numbers and morale of naval crewmen, according to D. Goodman,
Spanish Naval Power, 1589-1665: Reconstruction and Defeat
(Cambridge, 1997).

2. Enrique Llopis Agelán, in I. A. A. Thompson and B. Yun Casalilla,
The Castilian Crisis of the Seventeenth Century: New Perspectives on the Economic and Social History of Seventeenth-Century Spain
(Cambridge, 1994). The broadest treatment of the decline in one volume is A. Domínguez Ortiz et al., "La crisis del siglo XVII," in R. Menéndez Pidal and J. M. Jover, eds.,
Historia de España
, vol. 23 (Madrid, 1989).

3. As Sir Raymond Carr has observed, it was "curiously indifferent to personal character and its development. The drama of the Golden Age is strong on plots, but the dramatis personae are stock types and little more." New York Review of Books, November 20, 1986.

4. In some ways Scotland became an even better example than England. See A. Herman,
How the Scots Invented the Modern World
(New York, 2001).

5. The English edition is titled
The Spanish Character: Attitudes and Mentalities from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century
(Berkeley, 1979). To this might be added B. Bennassar, L. Domergue, J.P. Dedieu, and J. Pérez, "Las resistencias mentales," in Bennassar's
Orígenes del atraso económico español
(Barcelona, 1985), 124-51.

6. R. MacKay,
"Lazy, Improvident People": Myth and Reality in the Writing of Spanish History
(Ithaca, N.Y., 2006).

7. T. A. Mantecón, "The Patterns of Violence in Early Modern Spain,"
Journal of the Historical Society
7.2 (June 2007): 229-64.

8. Cf.M. E. Lépori de Pithod,
La imagen de España en el siglo XVII: Percepción y decadencia
(Mendoza, Argentina, 1998).

9. See A. Mestre Sanchos,
Apología y crítica de España en el siglo XVIII
(Madrid, 2003).

10. One of the most recent treatments is R. García Cárcel,
Felipe V y los Españoles: Una visión periférica del problema de España
(Barcelona, 2002). See also J. Mercader i Riba,
Felip V i Catalunya
(Barcelona, 1968).

11. J. Marías,
España inteligible
, chap. 21.

12. J. Sarrailh,
L'Espagne éclairée de la seconde moitié du XVIIIe siècle
(Paris, 1954)

13. The reformist criticism of Feijóo did not go as far, however, as the "Reform Catholicism" advocated by a minority in France and Austria. See D. Sorkin,
The Religious Enlightenment: Protestants, Jews, and Catholics from London to Vienna
(Princeton, N.J., 2008), 215-309.

14. For a clear differentiation, see G. Himmelfarb,
The Roads to Modernity: The British, French, and American Enlightenments
(New York, 2004).

15. The basic new study is T. E. Chávez,
Spain and the Independence of the United States: An Intrinsic Gift
(Albuquerque, 2002). For a broader contextualization, see the new collective work by Gonzalo Anes de Castrillón, ed.,
La Ilustración española en la independencia de Estados Unidos
(Madrid, 2007).

16. L. T. Cummins,
Spanish Observers and the American Revolution, 1775-1783
(Baton Rouge, 1991).

17. Here it might be pointed out that eighteenth-century French writers produced the first glimmerings of "Hispanism," producing the principal new histories of Spain during that era, though this would not emerge as a scholarly field until the next century.

18. The best evocation of the new trends of that generation, even though somewhat idealized and exaggerated, is still J. Marías,
La España posible en tiempo de Carlos III
(Madrid, 1963).

19. J. Lynch,
Bourbon Spain, 1700-1808
(Oxford, 1989), 208.

20. This is the thesis of F. Sánchez-Blanco,
El Absolutismo y las Luces en el reinado de Carlos III
(Madrid, 2002).

21. F. Sánchez-Blanco, ed.,
La Ilustración goyesca: La cultura en España durante el reinado de Carlos IV (1788-1808)
(Madrid, 2007).

22. J. Álvarez Junco, "La invención de la Guerra de la Independencia,"
Studia Histórica-Historia Contemporánea
12 (1994): 75-99.

23. C. Esdaile,
España contra Napoleón: Guerrillas, bandoleros y el mito del pueblo en armas (1808-1814)
(Barcelona, 2006).

24. The bicentenary in 2008 produced a great volume of new historical literature, as major historical anniversaries do in Spain. J. P. Fusi and F. Calvo Serraller,
Por la independencia: La crisis de 1808 y sus consecuencias
(Madrid, 2008), presents the most elegant summary and analysis. Two of the best military accounts are A. Moliner Prada, ed.,
La Guerra de la Independencia en España (1808-1814)
(Barcelona, 2007), and E. de Diego,
España, el infierno de Napoleón
(Madrid, 2008).

1. This is the term used by M. Mugnaini, "Cult of the Nation, Religion of Liberty or Reason of State? Spain in Italian Foreign Policy (1846-1868)," in J. G. Beramendi et al., eds.,
Nationalism in Europe Past and Present
(Santiago de Campostela, 1994), 1:665-76.

2. C. A. Hale, "The Reconstruction of Nineteenth-Century Politics in Spanish America: A Case for the History of Ideas,"
Latin American Research Review
8.2 (Summer 1973): 53-73

3. M.-L. Rieu-Millán,
Los diputados americanos en las Cortes de Cádiz
(Madrid, 1990); D. Martínez Torrón,
Los liberales románticos españoles ante la descolonización americana
(Madrid, 1992); M. Chust,
La cuestión nacional americana en las Cortes de Cádiz
(Valencia, 1999); P. Cruz Villalón et al.,
Los orígenes del constitucionalismo liberal en España e Iberoamérica: Un estudio comparado
(Seville, 1994); P. Pascual Martínez,
La unión con España, exigencia de los diputados americanos en las Cortes de Cádiz
(Madrid, 2001).

4. T. E. Anna,
Spain and the Loss of Latin America
(Lincoln, Neb., 1983); M. P Costeloe,
Response to Revolution: Imperial Spain and the Spanish American Revolutions, 1810- 1840
(Cambridge, 1986).

5. The bibliography treating Carlism is very extensive. Among general accounts, A. M. Moral Roncal,
Las guerras carlistas
(Madrid, 2006), emphasizes military history, while J. Canal,
El carlismo: Dos siglos de contrarrevolución en España
(Madrid, 2000), deals more with political and social aspects. The best history of the first and most important Carlist war is A. Bullón de Mendoza,
La primera guerra carlista
(Madrid, 1992).

6. This is the argument of J. V. Serrâo and A. Bullón de Mendoza, eds.,
La contrarrevolución legitimista (1688-1876)
(Madrid, 1995), and of Jordi Canal in his article "Guerra civil y contrarrevolución en la Europa del sur en el siglo XIX: Reflexiones a partir del caso español," in J. Canal i Morell, ed.,
Las guerras civiles en la España contemporánea
(Madrid, 2005), 23-47.

7. I. Burdiel,
La política de los notables: Moderados y avanzados durante el régimen del Estatuto Real
(Valencia, 1987); I. Castells,
La utopía insurreccional del liberalismo
(Barcelona, 1989); M. C. Romeo,
Entre el orden y la revolución: La formación de la burguesía liberal en la crisis de la monarquía absoluta
(Alicante, 1993).

8. This follows the argument of J. Varela Ortega, "La España política de fin de siglo,"
Revista de Occidente
(1998): 43-77, and I. Burdiel, "Myths of Failure, Myths of Success: New Perspectives on Nineteenth-Century Spanish Liberalism," Journal of Modern History 70 (December 1998): 892-912.

9. For a good introduction to Cánovas and his work, see A. Bullón de Mendoza and L. E. Togores, eds.,
Cánovas y su época
, 2 vols. (Madrid, 1999).

10. The fundamental study is J. Álvarez Junco,
Mater Dolorosa: La idea de España en el siglo XIX
(Madrid, 200,). See also P. Cirujano Marín et al.,
Historiografía y nacionalismo español (1834-1868)
(Madrid, 1985); I. Fox,
La invención de España: Nacionalismo liberal e identidad nacional
(Madrid, 1997); and J. P. Fusi, España:
La evolución de la identidad nacional
(Madrid, 2000), 163-96.

11. J. Álvarez Junco, "La difícil nacionalización de la derecha española en la primera mitad del siglo XIX,"
Hispania
61.3 (2001): 831-58.

12. Recent controversies have elicited a new anthology of Menéndez Pelayo's writings, under the title of
La historia de España
(Madrid, 2007). See also C. Boyd,
Historia Patria: Politics, History, and National Identity in Spain, 1875-1975
(Princeton, N.J., 1997).

13. This is the thesis of M. K. Flynn,
Ideology, Mobilization, and the Nation: The Rise of the Irish, Basque and Carlist Nationalist Movements in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries
(London, 2000).