The Anatomy of Violence (76 page)

    1.
Kip’s anxiety after shooting his father was documented by a friend, Tony, who by happenstance called Kip after his father had been killed but before
his mother arrived home. The call lasted an hour, and Tony sensed that Kip was on edge, pacing around his room, and repeatedly commenting that his mother was not home yet.

    2.
Although Kip Kinkel injured twenty-five students at school, he was charged with an additional assault on an arresting police officer who had to use pepper spray to subdue him. This assault has been construed as an attempt by Kip to goad the police officer into shooting him.

    3.
Konkol, R. J. (1999).
Expert Witness Testimony
. November.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/kinkel/trial/konkol.html
.

    4.
The scan in question was a SPECT scan (single-photon emission computed tomography), a nuclear-medicine technique that uses a gamma camera and gamma rays to create a three-dimensional image of the functioning of the brain.

    5.
Frontline: The Killer at Thurston High
. (2000). WGBH Educational Foundation.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/kinkel/
.

    6.
Ibid.

    7.
Fitzgibbon, C. (2007).
Sunshine and Shadows: Reflections of a Macmillan Nurse
, pp. 31–32. Doncaster: Encircling Publications.

    8.
The rapidity of Roma’s death may likely be the result of her having had acute myeloid leukemia, which is the most common acute form of leukemia that affects adults and is known to kill within weeks. See Vardiman, J. W., Harris, N. L. & Brunning, R. D. (2002). The World Health Organization (WHO) classification of the myeloid neoplasms.
Blood
100, 292–302.

    9.
Sontag, S. (1978).
Illness as Metaphor
. New York: Picador.

  10.
Fitzgibbon,
Sunshine and Shadows
, p. 32.

  11.
Raine, A. (1993).
The Psychopathology of Crime: Criminal Behavior as a Clinical Disorder.
San Diego: Academic Press.

  12.
Ibid.

  13.
Spitzer, R. L. (1999). Harmful dysfunction and the DSM definition of mental disorder.
Journal of Abnormal Psychology
108, 430–32.

  14.
At the time of writing,
DSM-
4
is being revised for the 2013 publication of
DSM-
5
.

  15.
American Psychiatric Association (2012).
DSM-
5 Development: Definition of a Mental Disorder
.
http://www.dsm5.org/ProposedRevisions/Pages/proposedrevision.aspx?rid=465
.

  16.
The proposed revision to
DSM-
5
further adds to its definition of mental disorder as follows: “A mental disorder is not merely an expectable or culturally sanctioned response to a specific event such as the death of a loved one. Neither culturally deviant behavior (e.g., political, religious, or sexual) nor a conflict that is primarily between the individual and society is a mental disorder unless the deviance or conflict results from a dysfunction in the individual, as described above.” This in no way rules out violence
as a disorder, unless one is specifically referring to terrorism, which can be construed as a conflict between the individual and society. Nevertheless, if such terrorists were found to also present with dysfunction that is caused by a biological or psychological condition, then even they would be viewed as clinically disordered. The question that we do not have an answer to at present is whether terrorists do have the type of biological characteristics we see in violent offenders.

  17.
Manderscheid, R. W., Ryff, C. D., Freeman, E. J., McKnight-Eily, L. R., Dhingra, S., et al. (2010). Evolving definitions of mental illness and wellness.
Preventing Chronic Disease
7.
http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2010/jan/09_0124.htm
.

  18.
Raine,
The Psychopathology of Crime
.

  19.
Herbert, E., Kennedy, M., Licht, J. & Mandra, J. (2008). Using genetics to treat leukemia: How Gleevec works.
Science in Society
, Northwestern University.
scienceinsociety.northwestern.edu/sites/default/files/chisholmani1.swf
.

  20.
Lichtenstein, P., Holm, N. V., Verkasalo, P. K., et al. (2000). Environmental and heritable factors in the causation of cancer: analyses of cohorts of twins from Sweden, Denmark, and Finland.
New England Journal of Medicine
343, 78–85.

  21.
Lodish, H., Berk, A., Matsudaira, P., Kaiser, C. A., Krieger, M., et al. (2004).
Molecular Biology of the Cell
, 5th ed. New York: W. H. Freeman. Technically, the changes taking place consist of damage to the molecular DNA that produces errors in DNA synthesis, and this in turn results in mutations.

  22.
Landenberger, N. A. & Lipsey, M. W. (2005). The positive effects of cognitive–behavioral programs for offenders: A meta-analysis of factors associated with effective treatment.
Journal of Experimental Criminology
1, 451–76.

  23.
Sampson, R. (2012).
Great American Cities: Chicago and the Enduring Neighborhood Effect.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

  24.
Raine, A., Brennan, P. A., Farrington, D. P. & Mednick, S. A., eds. (1997).
Biosocial Bases of Violence
. New York: Plenum.

  25.
Laub, J. & Sampson, R. J. (2003).
Shared Beginnings, Divergent Lives: Delinquent Boys to Age 70
. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

  26.
Federal Bureau of Investigation (2010).
Uniform crime reports: Offenses cleared
.
http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2010/crime-in-the-u.s.-2010/clearances
.

  27.
Blow, C. M. (2010). The high cost of crime.
New York Times
. October 8, editorial, p. A21.
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/09/opinion/09blow.html?_r=1
.

  28.
Anderson, D. A. (1999). The aggregate burden of crime,
Journal of Law and Economics
42, 611–42.

  29.
Malvestuto, R. J. (2007).
Testimony to Committee on Public Safety
. Council of the City of Philadelphia, February 13.

  30.
Berk, R., Sherman, L., Barnes, G., Kurtz, E. & Ahlman, L. (2009). Forecasting murder within a population of probationers and parolees: A high stakes application of statistical learning.
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society)
172, 191–211.

  31.
In the study by Berk, Sherman, and colleagues, the authors recognized their high false-positive rate. For every true-positive case identified, there were twelve false-positives. They point out, however, that there is nevertheless an eightfold increase in prediction accuracy using random-forest statistical learning procedures.

  32.
The futuristic scenario I have drawn out was inspired by a novel that Marty Seligman sent me after I visited the University of Pennsylvania in October 1994 to give a talk on brain imaging and homicide. The novel, by Philip Kerr, is set in London in 2013 and involves a cat-and-mouse game between a detective and a serial killer typed under the Lombroso program as a potentially dangerous killer. Kerr, P. (1993).
A Philosophical Investigation
. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.

  33.
The Academy of Experimental Criminology.
http://www.crim.upenn.edu/aec/index.html
.

  34.
Kringelbach, M. L., Jenkinson, N., Owen, S.L.F. & Aziz, T. Z. (2007). Translational principles of deep brain stimulation.
Nature Reviews Neuroscience
8, 623–35.

  35.
Ridding, M. C. & Rothwell, J. C. (2007). Perspectives: Opinion—Is there a future for therapeutic use of transcranial magnetic stimulation?
Nature Reviews Neuroscience
8, 559–67.

  36.
Department of Justice (2012). Assistant Attorney General Laurie Robinson announces departure from office of justice programs.
Office of Public Affairs
. Tuesday, January 3.
http://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/2012/January/12-ag-005.html
.

  37.
Mitchell, O. (2005). A meta-analysis of race and sentencing research: Explaining the inconsistencies.
Journal of Quantitative Criminology
21, 439–66.

  38.
Office of Justice Programs (2012). Homicide trends in the U.S.: Trends by race.
Bureau of Justice Statistics
.
http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/homicide/race.cfm
.

  39.
Cohen, A. (2011). Licensing parents.
Bleeding Heart Libertarians
. December 27.
http://bleedingheartlibertarians.com/2011/12/licensing-parents-2/
.

  40.
State of California Department of Justice (2009). Megan’s Law homepage.
http://www.meganslaw.ca.gov/
.

  41.
A conker is the seed from the horse-chestnut tree, about 1.5 inches in diameter. This traditional British game is played by putting a hole through
the conker, threading it onto a piece of string, and swinging it to break the opponent’s conker, held vertically and stationary on a string. Health and safety concerns that have led to it being banned at school include the shards of the conker flying off into a child’s eye, and nut allergies, although personally I never had any problem myself playing conkers at school.

  42.
Strickland, P. (2011). Sentences of imprisonment for public protection: Commons Library standard note. October 19.
http://www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/SN06086
.

  43.
Although judges were originally mandated to impose a life sentence if the offender met IPP criteria, the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act of 2008 allowed judges more discretion.

  44.
Taylor, R., Wasik, M. & Leng, R. (2004).
The Criminal Justice Act 2003
: Blackstone’s Guide
. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  45.
Jacobson, J. & Hough, M. (2010).
Unjust Deserts: Imprisonment for Public Protection
. London: Prison Reform Trust.

  46.
Ibid., p. 8.

  47.
Duggan, C. (2011). Dangerous and severe personality disorder.
British Journal of Psychiatry
198, 431–33.

  48.
Buchanan, A. & Grounds, A. (2011). Forensic psychiatry and public protection.
British Journal of Psychiatry
198, 420–23.

  49.
Ibid.

  50.
Verkaik, R. (2004). Blair has not been tough on the causes of crime, says Woolf.
The Independent
(London), April 23.

  51.
Mackintosh, N., Baddeley, A., Brownsworth, R., et al. (2011).
Brain Waves Module 4
: Neuroscience and the Law.
London: The Royal Society.

  52.
Profiling school shooters (2000).
Frontline: The Killer at Thurston High
. web article.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/kinkel/profile/
.

  53.
Kellerman, J. (1999).
Savage Spawn: Reflections on Violent Children
. New York: Ballantine.

  54.
Developmental and social-emotional screening of young children (0-6 years of age) in Minnesota.
http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/fh/mch/devscrn/
.

  55.
Krug, E. G., Dahlberg, L. L., Mercy, J. A., Zwi, A. B. & Lozano, R. (2002).
World Report on Violence and Health
. Geneva: World Health Organization.

  56.
Centers for Disease Control (2008).
The Public Health Approach to Violence
Prevention.
http://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/overview/public health approach.html
.

  57.
Social Finance (2012).
About Us
.
http://www.socialfinanceus.org/about
.

  58.
Social Finance (2012).
History.
http://www.socialfinanceus.org/work/history
.

  59.
Commonwealth of Massachusetts (2012).
Massachusetts First State in the Nation to Pursue “Pay For Success” Social Innovation Contracts
. Press release, January 18.
http://www.mass.gov/anf/press-releases/ma-first-to-pursue-pay-for-success-contracts.html
.

  60.
Belkin, L. (2009). Should parenting require a license?
New York Times.
January 8.
http://parenting.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/01/08/should-parenting-require-a-license/
.

  61.
Tittle, P. (2004).
Should Parents Be Licensed?
Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books.

  62.
Leading articles (2012). Parental guidance suggested.
The Times
(London), p. 2, May 19.

  63.
Farah, M. J. (2012). Neuroethics: The ethical, legal, and societal impact of neuroscience.
Annual Review of Psychology
63, 571–91.

  64.
Sterzer, P. (2010). Born to be criminal?: What to make of early biological risk factors for criminal behavior.
American Journal of Psychiatry
167, 1,
ajp.psychiatryonline.org
.

  65.
Kellerman,
Savage Spawn
, pp. 109-11.

  66.
Farrington, D. P. & Welsh, B. C. (2007).
Saving Children from a Life of Crime: Early Risk Factors and Effective Interventions
. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  67.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2006).
Child Maltreatment.
Washington, D.C.

  68.
Kahneman, D. (2011).
Thinking, Fast and Slow
. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.

  69.
LaFollette, H. (2010). Licensing parents revisited.
Journal of Applied Philosophy
27, 327–43.

  70.
Ibid
.

  71.
Couple who made boy, 11, live in a coal bunker jailed. (2012).
The Independent
(London), Courts section, May 29.