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CDC safety level values for bone and lead levels are somewhat different. In this case we are dealing with bone lead, and CDC safety levels for bone are defined as <15. Consequently, the average person in this study was at the very top of that safety level. Put another way, about half of the sample exceeded CDC-defined safe bone-lead levels.

  65.
Other affected structures included the cingulate and insula. Within the frontal lobe, the middle frontal gyrus was the area most reduced in volume.

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One caveat is that this sample was 90 percent African-American and these prospective brain-imaging findings could be usefully replicated on a Caucasian sample. One would expect the same findings in other ethnic groups, although it is conceivable that poorer neighborhood conditions could result in greater exposure to lead in this community sample, and possibly stronger brain-lead relationships. The ethnicity of the sample of lead workers was not reported in Cecil et al. (2008).

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For a detailed review see Needleman, H. L., Riess, J. A., Tobin, M. J., Biesecker, G. E. & Greenhouse, J. B. (1996). Bone lead levels and delinquent behavior.
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These findings on early lead exposure and adult crime applied to women as well as men, with careful control for potential confounds such as maternal smoking, alcohol use, and drug use in addition to the usual social suspects such as low income.

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Chen, A., Cai, B., Dietrich, K. N., Radcliffe, J. & Rogan, W. J. (2007). Lead exposure, IQ, and behavior in urban 5- to 7-year-olds: Does lead affect behavior only by lowering IQ?
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Absorption of cadmium from the lungs is much more efficient—five times better—than absorption by the gut, which also helps explain why smokers have such high cadmium levels compared with nonsmokers, even when both groups have the same food intake.

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Jarup, L. (2003). Hazards of heavy metal contamination.
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Flanagan, P. R., McLellan, J. S., Haist, J., Cherian, M. G., Chamberlain, M. J., et al. (1978). Increased dietary cadmium absorption in mice and human subjects with iron deficiency.
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Gottschalk, et al., Abnormalities in hair trace elements as indicators of aberrant behavior.

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Masters, R., Way, B., Hone, B., Grelotti, D., Gonzalez, D., et al. (1998). Neurotoxicity and violence.
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Ibid.

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Hubbs-Tait et al., Neurotoxicants, micronutrients, and social environments.

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Grandjean, P., Weihe, P., White, R. F., Debes, F., Araki, S., et al. (1997). Cognitive deficit in 7-year-old children with prenatal exposure to methylmercury.
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Myers, G. J., Davidson, P. W., Cox, C., Shamlaye, C. F., Palumbo, D., et al. (2003). Prenatal methylmercury exposure from ocean fish consumption in the Seychelles child development study.
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Justin, H. G. & Williams, L. R. (2007). Consequences of prenatal toxin exposure for mental health in children and adolescents: A systematic review.
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Laing, R. D. & Esterson, A. (1970).
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Reiss, A. J. & Roth, J. A. (eds.).
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Raine, A. (2002). Annotation: The role of prefrontal deficits, low autonomic
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Brennan, P. A. & Alden, A. (2005). Schizophrenia and violence: The overlap. In A. Raine (ed.),
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Torrey, E. F. (2011). Stigma and violence: Isn’t it time to connect the dots?
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Cannon, T. D. & Raine, A. (2006). Neuroanatomical and genetic influences on schizophrenia and crime: The schizophrenia-crime association. In Raine,
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Raine, A. (2006). Schizotypal personality: Neurodevelopmental and psychosocial trajectories.
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115.
Raine, A. (1991). The Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ): A measure of schizotypal personality based on DSM-III-R criteria.
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116.
Ibid.

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Siever, L. J. & Davis, K. L. (2004). The pathophysiology of schizophrenia disorders: Perspectives from the spectrum.
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Wahlund, K. & Kristiansson, M. (2009). Aggression, psychopathy and brain imaging: Review and future recommendations.
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119.
Cannon & Raine, Neuroanatomical and genetic influences on schizophrenia and crime, pp. 219–46.

120.
Raine, A., Fung, A. L. & Lam, B.Y.H. (2011). Peer victimization partially mediates the schizotypy—aggression relationship in children and adolescents.
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Norris, J. (1988).
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122.
Leonard Lake:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Lake
.

123.
The name of the location is ominous—Calaveras is the Spanish word for skulls, and over forty-five pounds of bones were eventually excavated at Lake’s hideout, the remains of many of his victims.

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Henry, J. D., Bailey, P. E., Rendell, P. G. (2008). Empathy, social functioning and schizotypy.
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Norris,
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Raine,
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Torrey, Stigma and violence.

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Norris, J. (1988).
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    2.
Jones, R. G. (1992).
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    3.
Norris,
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    4.
Ibid.

    5.
Jones,
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    6.
Berry-Dee, C. (2003).
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    7.
Hare, R. D. (1965). Acquisition and generalization of a conditioned-fear response in psychopathic and non-psychopathic criminals.
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    8.
Raine, A. & Venables, P. H. (1981). Classical conditioning and socialization—a biosocial interaction.
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Rafter, N. H. (2006). H. J. Eysenck in Fagin’s kitchen: The return to biological theory in 20th-century criminology.
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Raine, A., Brennan, P. & Mednick, S. A. (1994). Birth complications combined with early maternal rejection at age 1 year predispose to violent crime at age 18 years.
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Norris,
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Norris,
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Norris,
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Raine, A., Brennan, P., Mednick, B. & Mednick, S. A. (1996). High rates of violence, crime, academic problems, and behavioral problems in males with both early neuromotor deficits and unstable family environments.
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  21.
While cluster analysis does not exactly carve nature at its joints, it statistically seeks out naturally occurring homogenous subgroups within a population on the basis of social and neurological risk factors in order to identify naturally occurring discrete groups. The emergence of a biosocial group with a combination of social and biological risk confirms the presence within the general population of a biosocial “at risk” group.

  22.
The biosocial group was specifically characterized by neurological problems, parental crime, family instability, marital conflict, and maternal rejection of the child.

  23.
Raine, A., Brennan, P., Mednick, B. & Mednick, S. A. (1996). High rates of violence, crime, academic problems, and behavioral problems in males with both early neuromotor deficits and unstable family environments.
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Brennan, P. A., Grekin, E. R. & Mednick, S. A. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and adult male criminal outcomes.
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Eysenck, H. J. (1977).
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  34.
Ibid.

  35.
Here “good home” is a relative term, and was defined in my early fear-conditioning study as children from high social classes.

  36.
Rafter, H. J. Eysenck in Fagin’s kitchen.

  37.
Other international scholars in addition to Hans Eysenck who should be acknowledged as having shaped a biosocial perspective on crime in the 1970s include Sarnoff Mednick (United States), Karl Christiansen (Denmark), Michael Wadsworth (England), and David Farrington (England). As discussed in the chapter on genetic influences, Avshalom Caspi and Terrie Moffitt took this perspective much further in their far-reaching work on the interaction between severe child abuse and the genotype conferring low levels of MAOA in predisposing to offending. Eysenck himself was half a century ahead of his time in suggesting a biosocial approach to crime, for it is only now that this approach is beginning to be embraced by a wider scientific community.

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The genotype in question consisted of those with the A1 allelic form of the DRD2 gene.

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In outlining how different brain structures may give rise to the emotional, cognitive, and behavioral risk factors for violence, I have been relatively simplistic. Limbic abnormalities may, for example, in part give rise to the more affective, emotional components of violence, but clearly there will be
interactions
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